Copyright by Jina Chung 2011 The Thesis Committee for Jina Chung Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis: Rembrandt Redefined: Making the “Global Artist” in Seventeenth- Century Amsterdam APPROVED BY SUPERVISING COMMITTEE: Supervisors: Jeffrey Chipps Smith Janice Leoshko Rembrandt Redefined: Making the “Global Artist” in Seventeenth- Century Amsterdam by Jina Chung, B.A. Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts The University of Texas at Austin May 2011 Acknowledgements This thesis germinated from a conversation I had with Dr. Janice Leoshko nearly nine months ago. Being aware of my interest in India, she kindly suggested that I look into Rembrandt‟s copies of Mughal paintings, which she saw as an opportunity to utilize my background in European visual culture to explicate Indian art. As I progressed in my thesis research, my preconceived notions of Rembrandt quickly dissipated, leaving me with a desire to reveal a side of him, which I believe to be underemphasized in the scholarship- his capacity for empathy towards different peoples, cultures, and religions. In the course of thinking and preparing for my topic, a couple of scholarly works loom rather largely in the pages of this thesis: Peter Burke‟s Cultural Hybridity and Thomas DaCosta Kauffmann‟s Toward a Geography of Art have helped me interpret Rembrandt‟s Mughal drawings as “hybrids” of two distinct artistic traditions. In order to frame Rembrandt as a participant in Early Modern artistic and cultural exchange, I heavily relied on Catherine Scallen‟s essay, “The Global Rembrandt” and Julie Hochstrasser‟s Still Life and Trade in the Dutch Golden Age, both of which provided much insight into the artist‟s cosmopolitan environment. Equally as important were the Mughal scholars whose works challenged the notion of Asia as a passive depository of European influence. The V&A Museum‟s informative exhibition catalogue, Encounters: Meeting of Asia and Europe 1500-1800 and Gregory Minissale‟s Images of Thought: Visuality in Islamic India, are two notable publications that changed the way I view centers of power in the Early Modern period. In my desire to portray Rembrandt as a “global” artist, I consciously chose to avoid solely focusing on his Mughal drawings. I instead utilized a wide range of his etchings and paintings, in addition to his drawings, to frame Rembrandt‟s copies of iv Mughal paintings as the artist‟s thoughtful engagement of a foreign artistic style, and also to demonstrate how his interest in peoples and cultures developed over the duration of his prolonged career. I am thankful for my two advisors, Professor Leoshko, for suggesting the wonderful topic, and Professor Jeffrey Chipps Smith, for showing great enthusiasm for my project. During the course of writing this thesis, many individuals helped keep my spirits up and in good humor through a variety of non-academic activities (with the exception of one unfortunate film that will remain nameless). My “Dexter” crew, in particular, made Austin feel like home for this California native. This past semester has been made tolerable by the indefatigable humor of my roommate and friend, Carrie Joynton. I especially need to express my gratitude and appreciation for the following individuals for lending a helping hand with my images: Hao Jimi Wu, Isaac Lim, and Grace J. Lee. Acknowledgements would not be complete without mentioning my wonderful “LG family” at Acts Fellowship; in particular, Grace and Sung Lee for their warmth and generosity. Finally, I cannot thank enough W.S. Park for setting aside his own work to edit and read earlier drafts of this thesis. His endless enthusiasm for my project has cheered me through even the most difficult and frustrating moments of writing. Special thanks are in order for my mother, Il Ip Lydia Shields, who has never let language or cultural barriers from demonstrating her unfailing support in all my academic aspirations. This thesis is dedicated to them, with my love. May 2011 v Abstract Rembrandt Redefined: Making the “Global” Artist in Seventeenth- Century Amsterdam Jina Chung, M.A. The University of Texas at Austin, 2011 Supervisors: Jeffrey Chipps Smith and Janice Leoshko Rembrandt‟s two dozen copies of Mughal paintings that he created between the years 1654 and 1660, remains an obscure collection of drawings within the artist‟s extensive body of work. In the scholarship, these drawings are usually framed as his interest in costumes and gestures. This interpretation, however, does not fully take into account Rembrandt‟s sensitivity towards cultural and religious tolerance, as exhibited in all aspects of his artistic practice. Prior to his Mughal drawings, Rembrandt already exhibited a curiosity for foreign peoples and places. As a resident of Amsterdam, the global epicenter of Europe, he took advantage of his cosmopolitan atmosphere by actively collecting objects from Asia and the New World brought in by the Dutch East India Company. His art, moreover, did not remain impervious to this dynamic and vi diverse environment, as evinced by the numerous drawings Rembrandt made to document the different sights and peoples that he encountered in the city. His Mughal copies, moreover, do not resemble the sketches that scholars consider as exhibiting the artist‟s curiosity for Oriental attire and distinct body language; instead, they closely parallel the kinds of drawings he made after works of art he found visually appealing. Rembrandt experimented with different kinds of lines and contours to imitate and adapt the Mughal style to diversify his artistic repertoire. His thoughtful engagement reveals that Rembrandt viewed Mughal art style as legitimate forms he could utilize to develop new compositions, or even to challenge and correct existing pictorial traditions. Rembrandt‟s Mughal drawings, rather than being an obscure collection, demonstrate instead his unique ability to craft works of art to be reflective of his rich, diverse environment. This strong artistic desire for pictorial experimentation, in addition to his sensitivity for acute narrative interpretation, coalesces to form a more unified portrait of Rembrandt as an empathetic, albeit ambitious, artist. vii Table of Contents List of Figures ....................................................................................................... ix Introduction: Re-Framing Rembrandt .....................................................................1 Chapter One: The Global Rembrandt:Converging Geographies ..........................14 Forging the Cosmopolitan City: Amsterdam ................................................15 Painting Faces: Rembrandt's Merchant Portraits ..........................................17 Mapping Foreignness: Rembrandt as "Ethnographer" .................................20 Collecting the World: The Dutch Kunstkammer .........................................22 Chapter Two: Rembrandt the Observer: Looking at Asia ....................................25 Trading in the Orient: The VOC in Asia ......................................................26 Journeying to the East: Travel Literature in Europe .....................................29 Purchasing Curiosa: VOC Commodities in Amsterdam ..............................33 Concurring Desires: "Europe" in Mughal India ............................................36 Chapter Three: Rembrandt the Imitator: Encountering Mughal Art .....................39 Rembrandt's Copying Practice: Mughal Drawings in Context .....................40 Searching for Inspiration: Rembrandt and His Copies of Works of Art ......45 Emulating the Masters: Two Mughal Case Studies ......................................50 Copying the West: Mughal Artists and European Art ..................................54 Chapter Four: Rembrandt the Innovator: Adapting the Mughal Style ..................57 Pushing Boundaries: Rembrandt and His Late Artistic Style .......................58 Challenging Tradition: Experiments with Unconventional Styles ...............61 Innovating the Image: Rembrandt's "Eliminations" ....................................67 Incorporating the Mughal Style: Rembrandt's Art From the 1650's .............70 Conclusion: ............................................................................................................75 Appendix ................................................................................................................79 Bibliography ........................................................................................................134 viii List of Figures Figure 1: Rembrandt van Rijn, Indian Woman with a Flower, 1654-60 Figure 2: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah Jahan Standing, 1654-60 Figure 3: Rembrandt van Rijn, Indian Archer, 1654-60 Figure 4: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah Jahan Standing, 1654-60 Figure 5: Rembrandt van Rijn, Indian Nobleman, 1654-60 Figure 6: Rembrandt van Rijn, Indian Warrior with a Shield, 1654-60 Figure 7: Rembrandt van Rijn, Deccani Nobleman Standing, 1654-60 Figure 8: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah Jahan on Horseback, 1654-60 Figure 9: Rembrandt van Rijn, A Mughal Nobleman on Horseback, 1654-60 Figure 10: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah Jahan with Flower, 1655-60 Figure 11: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah Jahan and his Dara Shikoh, 1654-60 Figure 12: Rembrandt van Rijn, Two Mughal Noblemen, 1654-60 Figure 13: Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait of Shah Jahan, 1654-60 Figure 14: Rembrandt van Rijn, Shah