Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children How do young children’s experiences with gender biases affect their Olaiya E. Aina and development and opportunities for leading successful lives? What can Petronella A. Cameron teachers do to counteract these stereotypes? reotypes, which they apply to themselves and others, in Despite current applause for gender equality, an attempt to give meaning to and gain understanding children seem to be as stereotypically sex-typed about their own identity. as those of yesteryear. These stereotypes are fairly well developed by 5 years of —Joannie M. Schrof age, and become rigidly defined between 5 and 7 years Stereotypes abound in any society. One way that of age (Martin & Ruble, 2004), making the preschool people in diverse societies try to tolerate differences is years a critical period to deal with gender stereotypes. to make generalizations that categorize individuals into Stereotypes and sexism limit potential growth and devel- groups (Keefe, Marshall, & Robeson, 2003). Some of opment (Narahara, 1998) because internalizing negative these stereotypes are negative, while others are positive. All stereotypes impacts self-esteem and ultimately, academic stereotypes contribute to a culture of prejudice, which is performance. Long-term gender bias effects become communicated in word and action to families, communi- most apparent in students during adolescence (Carlson, ties, and even young children (Derman-Sparks, 2001). Egeland, & Sroufe, 2004). The early gender bias experiences that children Preschool educators can help children develop a encounter can shape their positive sense of their own gender. Teachers who are • attitudes and beliefs related to their development familiar with the factors that influence gender identity of interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, and stereotype development, and who understand the child’s active role in gender identity formation, can more • access to education equality, effectively counteract and even neutralize gender bias in • participation in the corporate work world, as well as their classrooms and attempt to prevent the formation of • stifling their physical and psychological well being children’s gender stereotypes (Zaman, 2007). (Hendrix & Wei, 2009). For early childhood educators, being aware of the ef- Gender Development Theories fects of gender stereotypes is particularly critical, because concepts of gender identity are sometimes placed on Kohlberg (as cited in Martin & Ruble, 2004) was one children even before their birth, with the selection of of the first theorists to address gender as a learned, cogni- paint colors for the nursery, for example. Children begin tive concept. His thinking was influenced by Piaget, who to form concepts of gender beginning around age 2, and portrayed children as active learners who use interactions most children know if they are a boy or girl by the age of with their environment to construct an understanding of 3 (Martin & Ruble, 2004). the world around them (Piaget, 1961). Kohlberg be- Between the ages of 3 and 5 years, children develop lieved that children’s cognitive understanding of gender their gender identity and begin to understand what it influenced their behavior (Kohlberg, 1981). means to be male or female. Almost immediately after These early ideas have been supported by research. In one becoming gender aware, children begin developing ste- study, children were asked questions about traditional and Dimensions of Early Childhood Vol 39, No 3, 2011 11 Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children label themselves as a boy or girl, their preferences for gender-typed play activities and materials begins (Freeman, 2007). This demonstrates the link between play and gender identity formation. For Vygotsky (1961), imitation and instruction are vital compo- nents to children’s development. Adults promote this learning by role-modeling behavior, assisting with challenging tasks, and passing along cultural meanings to objects and events, all of which are compo- nents of gender development. Influences on Gender Identity and Stereotypes Popular culture Gender stereotypes are pervasive in the media and popular culture (Salt- marsh, 2009). Consumer products inundate children with gender-typed messages on bed sheets, towels, ban- dages, clothes, school supplies, toys, and furniture (Freeman, 2007). Not only are these products marketed for specific genders, but they are mer- chandised in stores by gender, creat- ing segregated pink and blue aisles for shopping. Media portrayals also reinforce ste- reotypes. Advertising about comput- Subjects & Predicates Subjects ers typically depicted men and boys as competent users, engaged in active Stereotypes and sexism limit potential growth and development because internalizing or professional roles, while women negative stereotypes impacts self-esteem and ultimately, academic performance. and girls were passive observers or merely posed next to the computer non-traditional images of women (Martin & Ruble, 2004), which while looking pretty or provocative as portrayed in books. Children as involves the creation of organized (McNair, Kirova-Petrova, & Bhar- young as 5 were able to use outside structures of knowledge that influ- gava, 2001). In several European knowledge or assumptions to recon- ence thinking and behavior. countries, television advertising cile ideas that conflicted with their An alternative, but supplemen- to children is restricted or banned world view (Jackson, 2007). They tal view of gender development, is (Mitchener, 2001). rationalized and used “probably” that of gender as a social construct. Movies convey particularly pow- statements to explain how they came Through imaginative play, children erful messages about gender roles to their conclusions, with or without explore and understand gender and stereotyping (Derman-Sparks, the use of stereotypes. This research roles (Chick, Heilman-Houser, & 2001). Considering the brand supports Gender-Schema Theory Hunter, 2002). After children can 12 Vol 39, No 3, 2011 Dimensions of Early Childhood Why Does Gender Matter? Counteracting Stereotypes With Young Children strength and saturation of a mul- understand important social issues, children that are neither gender-fair timedia company such as Disney, such as those of gender, but also nor gender-congruent (Hyun, 2001). children are particularly susceptible. what they think about themselves Males demand and receive more Researchers examined the influ- and others. Korean immigrant girls attention from their teachers and ence of Disney images of women and perceived that a woman could not therefore receive more specific, marriage on the perceptions of young be President of the United States instructive feedback from teach- Korean immigrant girls. These girls because a classroom poster depicted ers (Erden & Wolfgang, 2004). In reported a resigned acceptance to the all male presidents (Lee, 2008). comparison, females become less portrayal of princesses having to face demanding of the teacher’s atten- external obstacles to marriage, such as tion; that results in lower levels of family approval or laws, while princes Teachers have achievement and self-esteem, which could marry according to their own tremendous therefore limits their career goals will (Lee, 2008). These researchers to more traditional, nurturing, and also noted that the girls associated influence on ideas often lower-paying careers. Males do desirability for a princess with one not escape the gender bias, however, attribute, such as beauty or a singing about gender as they are subject to conforming to voice, whereas princes were desired significance. male stereotypes and experience less for their courage, chivalry, or actions nurturing behavior (Zaman, 2007). (Lee, 2008). Combined with a tradi- Every day, teaching may occur in tion of female subservience in Korean Teachers have tremendous influ- curriculum areas where positive or culture, these young girls appeared to ence on how children develop ideas negative stereotypes can affect chil- accept their disenfranchisement. of gender and gender significance. dren’s concepts of self-competence Early childhood education Traditional caregivers typically (Ebach, et al., 2009). One study found The role of schools has become reinforced gender- stereotyped traits that 80% of the observed teachers more prominent in the lives of when they praised girls for their discouraged preschool girls from using children younger than 5 years of age clothing, hairstyles, neatness, and computers by their words and attitudes (Sales, Spjeldnes, & Koeshe, 2010). helping behaviors, and in contrast (McNair, Kirova-Petrova, & Bhargava, Many children spend up to 10 hours praised boys for their strength, physi- 2001). This stereotyping may contrib- a day in child care (Grafwallner, cal skill, size, and academic accom- ute to young girls’ inabilities to be- Fontaine, Torre, & Underhill, 2006). plishments (Chick, Heilman-Houser come competent users of technology. & Hunter, 2002). These teachers Two main aspects of the early child- Friends hood environment influence percep- used “honey” and “sweetie” to ad- dress girls, but said “you guys” when Children also have been shown tions of young children’s gender and to actively create gender identities gender stereotypes: speaking to the entire class (Chick, Heilman-Houser & Hunter, 2002). through interactions with each other • classroom materials and (Thorne, 1993). Friendship pat- • the