1 BEYOND LIBERATION: STUDENTS, SPACE, AND THE STATE IN EAST PAKISTAN/BANGLADESH 1952-1990 A dissertation presented by Samantha M. R. Christiansen to The Department of History In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of History Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts September, 2012 2 BEYOND LIBERATION: STUDENTS, SPACE, AND THE STATE IN EAST PAKISTAN/BANGLADESH 1952-1990 by Samantha M. R. Christiansen ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History in the Graduate School of Northeastern University September, 2012 3 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the history of East Pakistan/Bangladesh’s student movements in the postcolonial period. The principal argument is that the major student mobilizations of Dhaka University are evidence of an active student engagement with shared symbols and rituals across time and that the campus space itself has served as the linchpin of this movement culture. The category of “student” developed into a distinct political class that was deeply tied to a concept of local place in the campus; however, the idea of “student” as a collective identity also provided a means of ideological engagement with a globally imagined community of “students.” Thus, this manuscript examines the case study of student mobilizations at Dhaka University in various geographic scales, demonstrating the levels of local, national and global as complementary and interdependent components of social movement culture. The project contributes to understandings of Pakistan and Bangladesh’s political and social history in the united and divided period, as well as provides a platform for analyzing the historical relationship between social movements and geography that is informative to a wide range of disciplines. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are so many people without whom this dissertation would not have been possible; I have benefited from the guidance, mentorship, insight and kindness of not only my committee of official advisors but also many others who were under no obligation to help, but did so anyway in small and large ways. Throughout my time at Northeastern, Dr. Timothy S. Brown has served as my first sounding board for ideas, aspirations and anxieties regarding this and other research projects, the profession, my career, and a host of other topics. His willingness to listen and honest advice has encouraged me to reach beyond my own sense of my limitations. He has been a valuable mentor and I have benefitted enormously from his help. I think for the rest of my life, every time I write I will be importantly reminded in his voice that “It does not go without saying.” Dr. Christopher V. Hill has also been a source of constant and unfaltering encouragement throughout virtually my entire academic life. Dr. Hill’s wealth of knowledge, generosity, and dedication as an educator has inspired me and sustained me from my first glimpses into South Asia and throughout this entire dissertation. I have been fortunate to have him as an advisor and a friend. Dr. Heather Streets-Salter came to my committee in a moment of tragedy and crisis, and her flexibility, frankness and understanding was a comfort and relief in a difficult time. Dr. Christina K. Gilmartin also served as an advisor to this project, but did not see its completion. Her death so close to the end of the project was heartbreaking. If I could have only one more ride home or one last late night washing dishes with her, I would tell her thank you for everything, although I am sure even then the words would feel as woefully inadequate to express the depth of my gratitude as they do here. In addition to my “official” committee members, I have been the fortunate recipient of 5 support from many others in the History department at Northeastern University. In particular, support from Dr. Tom Havens, Dr. Laura Frader, Dr. Uta Poiger, and Dr. Katherine Luongo has come along in just the right moment during the long process of this project. I am also quite confident that I would be lost in some sort of bureaucratic labyrinth if not for the repeated help of Nancy Borromey and Jennifer Mocarski, both of whom were always somehow able to sort out the paperwork and offer welcome conversation breaks in either my doorway or theirs. The fieldwork for this dissertation and associated research was funded by grants from the United States Department of State, the American Institute of Bangladesh Studies, and the American Institute of Pakistan Studies, which allowed me to travel to Dhaka repeatedly for language study and research. I was supported by Independent University Bangladesh and the Liberation War Museum of Bangladesh with institutional affiliation. In the course of living and researching in Dhaka between 2007 and 2010, I encountered more warmth and sincere goodwill than I could have ever anticipated. Dr. Shelley Feldman, of AIBS, is an inspiration to me in her dedication to advancing scholarship on Bangladesh and her genuine love for the place. At IUB, Dr. Nazrul Islam provided kind support by welcoming me into the local academic circle with wonderful conversation and friendship. At Dhaka University, Gopal Das provided archival access to the University collection and welcomed me to share his beloved campus and home with him. Mofidul Haque of the Liberation War Museum was instrumental in making my research possible while I was in Dhaka, and his tireless efforts to preserve the cultural history of Bengal is a gift to us all. Also while in Bangladesh, I am happy to have had a well-timed, although too short, visit from George Katsiaficas, who journeyed with me on a whirlwind of interviews, traffic jams, and evening chats at my dining room table. That visit was perfectly timed and it reignited a spark of excitement and reminded me of my love for this project and for oral history. 6 Back in Boston, I have been sustained by my fellow graduate students at Northeastern. In the classroom, hallways, and especially in the extremely long (but helpful) meetings of the dissertation writing group, I have had the benefit of comments from many great minds as I developed the frameworks and chapters of this dissertation. Personal thanks are due especially to Zach, Stephanie, James, Burleigh, and Rachel, all of whom have been excellent work colleagues, but more importantly, have been an amazing little group of friends that has done well in recognizing when to raise critical points and questions, when to wait and listen while I sort it all out, and when to just go to Punter’s. At the heart of it all though has been my family. I owe them my deepest gratitude and admiration. My mom has never once doubted my ability to do anything I wanted and has unfailingly supported me in every way. I know wholeheartedly that I can count on her and the comfort of that knowledge has made me who I am. Thanks also to my sister, who just knows exactly when to make a (possibly inappropriate) joke that will get me to lighten up, relax a little, and get back to a productive place. I was also very lucky to marry into a wonderfully supportive family, and I have relied on, and appreciate greatly, the massive network of people and surnames are too many for me to keep track of, but that have welcomed me lovingly into the family. At the end of the day though, it always comes down to two boys that matter more than anything else. My son Atticus has been watching me work on this topic for virtually his entire life. I’ve dragged him across the country and across the world and I am grateful for his adaptability, worldliness, and courage. I say it him to all the time, but it deserves repeating here: Atticus you’re the best thing that ever happened to me. My husband, Jonathan Christiansen, has been a singularly critical figure in the project, and without him it would never have been possible. I’m thankful to him for giving me the space, respect and support necessary to get this 7 done. He has played single parent while I was away for months on end; he has dropped everything and moved to the other side of the world to be with me, and he has continually informed and helped shape my own understanding of the project and its various manifestations. I could not have asked for a more true partner in this project and in life. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to the countless, nameless student activists all over the world that have risked their lives, security, and comfort to come together in an effort to make the world better for us all. The optimism of youth is a power that sustains the world. 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 7 Introduction 8 Chapter 1: The Language of Student Power and Space: Dhaka University, 32 the Bhasha Andolan and the Shaheed Minar Chapter 2: Ghore Bhaire: Pakistani Students, Home and the World in the 62 Early Global Sixties Chapter 3: New Battles, Tested Rituals: Political Organizing on the Campus 87 in Ayub’s Martial Law Chapter 4: The Campus in Context: “Mass Upsurge” at a Local, Regional, 112 and International Scales Chapter 5: From Political Activists to Muktibahini: Students and the 141 Bangladesh Liberation War Chapter 6: Ritual and Resurrection: Students and the Campaign Against 166 General Ershad Conclusion 197 References 202 9 INTRODUCTION Sitting at a table in a tea shop on the Dhaka University campus, Ashraful1 says “This tea, from this canteen, all the movements start here.