Safe Use of Nickel in the Workplace Third Edition, Incorporating European Nickel Risk Assessment Outcomes S A F E US A Guide for Health Maintenance of Workers Exposed to Nickel, Its Compounds and Alloys E OF N ICK E L I N TH HealtH guide E WO R K P L A C E THIRD EDITION 2008 THIRD EDITION 2008 Nickel Institute Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association 55 University Avenue, Suite 1801 Toronto, Ontario 2605 Meridian Parkwary, Suite 200 Canada Durham, North Carolina 27713 M5J 2H7 USA Telephone: + 1 416 591 7999 Telephone: + 919 544 7722 Fax: + 1 416 591 7987 Fax: + 919 544 7724 Website: www.nickelinstitute.org Website: www.nipera.org THIRD EDITION 2008 © 2008 Nickel Institute. All rights reserved. This publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or archive, or transmitted, in any manner or media now known or later devised, only with appropriate attribution to the Nickel Institute or the prior written consent of the Nickel Institute. 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Safe Use of Nickel in the Workplace Third Edition, Incorporating European Nickel Risk Assessment Outcomes A Guide for Health Maintenance of Workers Exposed to Nickel, Its Compounds and Alloys Table Of Contents 1. ABOUT THIS GUIDE ................................................................................................................................................. 5 1.1 Summary .........................................................................................................................................................5 1.2 Production and Use .....................................................................................................................................................6 1.3 Sources of Exposure .....................................................................................................................................................6 1.4 Pharmacokinetics of Nickel .........................................................................................................................................7 1.5 Summary of the Toxicity of Nickel Compounds ..........................................................................................................8 1.5.1 Summary of the Toxicity of Metallic Nickel .....................................................................................................8 1.5.2 Summary of Nickel Metal Alloys .....................................................................................................................9 1.5.3 Summary of the Toxicity of Soluble Nickel ....................................................................................................10 1.5.4 Summary of the Toxicity of Oxidic Nickel .....................................................................................................11 1.5.5 Summary of the Toxicity of Sulfidic Nickel ....................................................................................................12 1.5.6 Summary of the Toxicity of Nickel Carbonyl .................................................................................................12 1.6 Assessing the Risks of Workers Exposed to Nickel .....................................................................................................13 1.7 Workplace Surveillance ..............................................................................................................................................15 1.8 Control Measures ......................................................................................................................................................16 1.9 Limit Values and Hazard Communication .................................................................................................................17 2. PRODUCTION AND USE ........................................................................................................................................ 18 2.1 Nickel-producing Industries ......................................................................................................................................19 2.2 Nickel-using Industries ..............................................................................................................................................20 3. SOURCES OF EXPOSURE........................................................................................................................................ 22 3.1 Occupational Exposures ............................................................................................................................................22 3.2 Non-occupational Exposures .....................................................................................................................................23 3.3 Nickel Emissions .......................................................................................................................................................25 4. PHARMACOKINETICS OF NICKEL COMPOUNDS ............................................................................................ 26 4.1 Intake .......................................................................................................................................................26 4.2 Absorption .......................................................................................................................................................27 4.2.1 Respiratory Tract Deposition, Absorption and Retention ...............................................................................27 4.2.2 Dermal Absorption ........................................................................................................................................29 4.2.3 Gastrointestinal Absorption ...........................................................................................................................29 4.3 Distribution .......................................................................................................................................................30 4.4 Excretion .......................................................................................................................................................31 4.5 Factors Affecting Metabolism ....................................................................................................................................32 5. TOXICITY OF NICKEL COMPOUNDS .................................................................................................................. 33 5.1 Metallic Nickel .......................................................................................................................................................33 5.1.1 Inhalation Exposure: Metallic Nickel .............................................................................................................33 5.1.2 Dermal Exposure: Metallic Nickel .................................................................................................................37 5.2 Nickel Alloys .......................................................................................................................................................37 5.2.1 Inhalation Exposure: Nickel Alloys ................................................................................................................38 5.2.2 Dermal Exposure: Nickel Alloys ....................................................................................................................39 5.3 Soluble Nickel .......................................................................................................................................................40 5.3.1 Inhalation Exposure: Soluble Nickel ..............................................................................................................40 5.3.2 Dermal Exposure: Soluble Nickel ..................................................................................................................43 5.3.3 Other Exposures: Soluble Nickel ...................................................................................................................43 5.4 Oxidic Nickel .......................................................................................................................................................47 5.4.1 Inhalation Exposure: Oxidic Nickel ...............................................................................................................48 5.5 Sulfidic Nickel .......................................................................................................................................................51 5.5.1 Inhalation Exposure: