‘I am not going to hurt you’: On the Micro-Dynamics of Fear and Violence Benjamin John Ellis Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Law September 2018 Declaration All sentences or passages quoted in this dissertation from other people's work have been specifically acknowledged by clear cross-referencing to author, work and page(s). Any illustrations that are not the works of the author of this dissertation have been used with the explicit permission of the originator (where possible) and are specifically acknowledged. I understand that failure to do this amounts to plagiarism and will be considered grounds for failure in this dissertation and the degree examination as a whole. The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2018 The University of Leeds and Benjamin John Ellis The right of Benjamin John Ellis to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Name: Benjamin John Ellis Signature: Date: ii Acknowledgements There is an air of excitement and trepidation when one takes the step (or leap) and embarks on a PhD. The final goal stands before you like a distant beacon – its glow faint and vaguely unreal. The path toward it, lined with decisions, documents, dead ends and discovery. It is therefore not without surprise that such processes cannot be completed without the help of supervisors, peers, friends, family and a dollop of determination. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Susanne Karstedt. She is both my fiercest supporter and my most ardent critic. The time, effort and energy she has taken to read and comment on my work are unsurpassed and I am so very grateful. She has supported me with laughter and lambasted me for lethargy. I will forever think of her commenting on my work and saying, “remove all hope.” Secondly, I would like to thank my second supervisor Professor Stephen Farrall. Stephen has a calmness that can put a student at ease. I have enjoyed my trips to Sheffield and have appreciated our discussions over lunch at the pub. Your work on fear of crime has helped guide me to the point at which I now stand. To my family, without your love, support and ever increasing badgering this would not be possible. It is difficult to articulate just how important you are. So, please know that you are important, really very, very important. Thank you with all my being. For those that are able, I hope we can celebrate together. For Granny Knight and Grandad Ellis, I will raise a glass – I got there in the end. To my friends near and far, the last few months have not been my greatest as a friend to you. I can return to some form of normality from this point forward, I assure you. Your patience and understanding mean the world to me. Your desires to talk about topics other than Goffman’s dramaturgy are a blessing. To friends old, friends new and friends dearly departed, I have needed you from day one and this will never change. Thank you. iii To my peers at all stages of your PhD journey, I wish you the best. The conversations, support, fun and friendship we share have made an immense impact on my time at the University of Leeds. From escaping the dungeon to the Liberty Building, I will always look back and smile. To the participants, without whom this research would have very short and immensely dull, thank you. You gave up your time to talk to a person unknown to you. For your patience, time and willingness to share I am exceedingly grateful. My list of thanks may be long but my gratitude is unending. My final thanks goes to the University of Leeds and the School of Law. I have been, and continue to be, proud of my association with the University. I have been lucky to attend a number of institutions and the University of Leeds offers a rare and privileged experience to all. Thank you. iv Preface A man in his 30s was sat at his office desk in the early evening. He liked to work beyond 5pm because it meant he could avoid the worst of the rush hour traffic. It was December and the winter freeze had taken hold. So when it came time to head home he put his hat and gloves on, along with his big winter coat and prepared to braved the sub-zero temperatures. He worked in a large public sector organisation and there were always unfamiliar faces passing him in the corridors but a smile and a nod usually punctuated each encounter. He made his way to the exit of his building. As the automatic doors opened the cold air hitting his face was a shock. Yet with little hesitation he pressed his hands a little deeper into his pockets and stepped outside. As he made his way to the staff multi-storey car park it started to rain. He pulled the hood of his coat up and bowed his head slightly to stop the cold wind and rain getting to his face. He had to cross a number of roads and pass between several buildings to get to his car. There were many people walking around and going about their business but he kept his head down and made his way quietly. There was a woman walking in front of him making her way similarly, he presumed, to her car and a journey home. She appeared to be cold. She was clutching her bag close to her with her arms folded. As the throng of people started to thin out he turned down the street on which the car park stood. The woman glanced behind and saw the man but continued to walk towards the entrance to the car park. She opened the door and entered. The man followed a few seconds later. He opened the door and entered the room to pay his ticket for the car park barrier. He looked to his right and saw that the woman he had been walking behind was stood in the corner. She was staring back at him, eyes wide open, clearly flustered by something. She was visibly shaking. “I don’t have any money! I don’t have anything!” She shouted. “There is nothing in here!” She gestured towards her handbag without loosening her grip on it. She looked terrified. v The man was confused. He really didn’t know what to think at first. He stood, unable to comprehend what the woman was talking about. The thought crossed his mind that there may be something wrong with her but it slowly started to dawn on him; She thought he had come to mug her. She thought he had followed her into the room to mug her! He didn’t know what to say. He didn’t know what to do. Should he be sympathetic and calm her down? Should he be annoyed? Should he be insulted? What is it about him that has caused this reaction? He just wanted to go home. The man had experienced this sort of thing before but never with this intensity. “I am just going to pay for my parking ticket if that’s OK?” He said. The tone of his voice was calm but he hoped it also conveyed his annoyance at being suspected of criminal intent. The woman, still standing in the corner, was clearly shaken. As the man put his money into the machine the woman’s demeanour quickly changed. She was apologetic. She must have finally realised he was a member of staff but the impact of her initial impression and reaction left an awkward atmosphere as the machine approved the man’s payment. He hurriedly took his ticket from the machine and went to his car without looking back at the woman or saying anything further. He had not meant to cause this impression but what could he do? He was making a journey he had made hundreds of times before. That woman had been deeply afraid of him and he knew it. vi Abstract This research explores the experience of being feared. In doing this, an under- researched and little understood perspective of fear of crime is addressed. The research investigated the phenomenon of being feared from a micro-sociological perspective and this focus has allowed a better understand the dynamics of fearful encounters. It highlights the intensions, actions and feelings of those who are perceived by the public and in communities as potential offenders, as ‘fearsome’ and ‘intimidating’. This thesis relies on qualitative interviews with police officers, soldiers, bouncers, gym-goers, students and young people. These strategically selected groups allow the research to understand a wide breadth of contexts in which being feared can be experienced. The unique elements of these groups are drawn out in addition to overarching thematic parallels. Alongside this methodology, a Goffmanian conceptual framework is used. This supports and highlights the importance symbolism, the giving and receiving of expressive information, and the expectations people have of the behaviour and intensions of others. The research also discusses the processes of learning to be feared and thus distils the ways in which fear is recognised in others.