Gender Trouble, Resistance and the Will to Power: Experiences and Societal Perceptions of the Tattooed Female Body. by Claire Louise Beale. A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of Masters of Philosophy in Gender and Sexuality Studies. College of Arts and Law Graduate School College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT September 2013 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract. The aim of this paper is to analyse and identify gender differences in the societal experiences of tattooed men and women. How tattooed women negotiate the ‘double- edged sword’ phenomenon as well as what makes tattooed female bodies resistant in today’s society will also be addressed. A combination of online forums and surveys was used to collect data, and a content analysis was conducted to interpret the results. My participant’s accounts of their tattoos demonstrated gender differences according to the image and location of their tattoos, as well as within the frequency of negative societal and familial reactions, of which the female participants reported more negative experiences. It was also found that the resistant element of my female participant’s tattoos can be found in their reaction to these negative experiences rather than in the image or location of their tattoos. I would like to dedicate this paper to my Uncle Jim, who passed away Christmas 2011. Although he never approved of my choice to get tattooed, I knew that he loved me anyway and that he was very proud of me for starting this degree. Acknowledgements. I would like to say a big thank you to my thesis supervisors, Dr. Charlotte Ross and Dr. Emma Foster for all their help and support (as well as for putting up with me!). You are both such an inspiration to me! Thank you to all my friends and family who have supported me over the past 2 years, especially to my parents Carol and Dave Beale for loaning me the money to pay for this degree. Thank you also to my participants for taking part, I am so grateful to you all for taking the time to share your experiences and tattoos with me. Table of Contents. Introduction...................................................................................... p. 1 Chapter 1: Literature Review........................................................... p. 5 Part 1: Feminist Perspectives of the Body............................ p. 5 Part 2: Tattooing and Gender Norms.................................... p. 14 Part 3: Tattooing as Signifier of Subversion.......................... p. 24 Conclusion of Literature Review............................................ p. 33 Chapter 2: Methodology................................................................... p. 35 Chapter 3: Data Analysis.................................................................. p. 50 Conclusion and Recommendations for Further Study.................. ... p. 80 Reference List................................................................................... p. 84 Appendices........................................................................................ p. 94 Appendix 1: Participant Information Sheet............................. p. 94 Appendix 2: Information and Consent Form/Post.................. p. 98 Appendix 3: Interview Questions for Forum........................... p. 100 Appendix 4: Interview Schedule for Forums.......................... p. 103 Appendix 5: Interview Questions for Surveys........................ p. 104 Appendix 6: Data from Forums.............................................. p. 107 Appendix 7: Data from Surveys............................................. p. 133 List of Tables. Table 1: Participants from the Forums......................................... p. 51 Table 2: Participants from Surveys.............................................. p. 52 Table 3: Tattoo Image.................................................................. p. 53 Table 4: Tattoo Meaning.............................................................. p. 55 Table 5: Size and Location.......................................................... p. 56 Table 6: Tattoo Locations............................................................ p. 56 Table 7: Tattoos that can be Covered......................................... p. 58 Table 8: Experiences in Society.................................................. p. 61 Table 9: Views on Gender and Societal Perceptions.................. p. 63 Table 10: Family Reactions to Tattoos........................................ p. 66 Table 11: Tattoos as Rebellious.................................................. p. 70 Table 12: Tattoos as Trendy....................................................... p. 73 Table 13: What is a Rebellious Tattoo?...................................... p. 74 Introduction. Tattooing has been practised around the world for centuries, and has even been traced back as far as prehistoric times (Demello 2000, 12). It was however a practice long forgotten in Western cultures until it was reintroduced by Captain James Cook in the 18th century after his voyages to Polynesia (ibid). Since its reintroduction the tattoo has been constantly met with both judgement as well as widespread popularity. The history of the tattoo in the West has seen tattooed bodies exhibited for entertainment purposes, as well as used as a way to determine norms of appearance (Atkinson 2003, 21). The practice has also been used as a way to define class and gender, due to its popularity amongst working class males from the 1920s (ibid, 38). This adversely affected the small role women played in the history of the tattoo in the West, and ensured they were kept away from the practice, due to its growing associations to those with a disreputable character (Demello 2000, 36). This led to the development of a negative stereotype of tattooed women, with those women who were tattooed being perceived as trampy, deviant and possibly lesbian or ‘butch’ (ibid, 60). However, the tattoo grew in popularity, which is in part due to women’s increased involvement in the practice during the 1970’s at the height of 2nd wave feminism (Mifflin 1997, 67). The tattoo is more widely accepted than it has ever been, with some tattoo designs considered as a fashion accessory (Atkinson 2002, 46). Even though the tattoo is now a common sight in the majority of Western cultures, it can still be met with scrutiny throughout society. This has been described as the ‘double- edged sword’ phenomenon (Demello 2000, 32). It has been argued that this is something 1 experienced primarily by women, who may be scrutinised in society for their tattoos more than tattooed men, due to the continued prevalence of society’s perception of the practice as a masculine activity (ibid, 31). This has not only positioned tattooed female bodies as ‘other’ in society, but has also led to the establishment of gender norms within the tattoo community to allow women to be tattooed but in an appropriately feminine way. In order to gain a full understanding of tattooed female embodiment, feminist perspectives of the body need to be analysed first. In the literature review, I identify difference, dominance and agency as the primary areas within the feminist focus on the body in which to begin a discussion of tattooed female bodies. Following this I discuss the importance of the post-feminist conceptualisation of the body and the impact of consumer culture on the construction of feminine identities. The establishment of gender norms within the community is explored next. Here, the development of the negative stereotype of tattooed women is discussed through an analysis of the history of tattooed women in the West. The impact this has had on tattooed women today is considered as well. The effect of power relations on the body will then be discussed using Foucault’s concepts of discourses, docile bodies and the aesthetics of the self alongside Nietzsche’s theory of the will to power. This section will establish how the tattooed female body can be seen as both a site of resistance and of compliance. In reviewing the existing literature in the above areas, it became clear that little attention has been paid to the experiences of tattooed bodies within society and the differences between gender and these experiences. This is the main aim of this paper; along with an examination of how tattooed women negotiate the ‘double- edged sword’ regarding perceptions of their tattoos, as well as what makes a 2 tattooed female body resistant in today’s society. This research will not only address the gaps in the knowledge as mentioned above but will also examine the prevalence of traditional gender norms, roles and expectations that still exist in our society. In order to address the issues regarding the gender differences in experiences of tattooed embodiment, my research questions can be defined as: How do women experience and negotiate the ‘double- edged sword’ regarding the acceptance and judgement of those