10 fallacies and examples pdf Continue A: It is imperative that we promote adequate means to prevent degradation that would jeopardize the project. Man B: Do you think that just because you use big words makes you sound smart? Shut up, loser; You don't know what you're talking about. #2: Ad Populum: Ad Populum tries to prove the argument as correct simply because many people believe it is. Example: 80% of people are in favor of the death penalty, so the death penalty is moral. #3. Appeal to the body: In this erroneous argument, the author argues that his argument is correct because someone known or powerful supports it. Example: We need to change the age of drinking because Einstein believed that 18 was the right age of drinking. #4. Begging question: This happens when the author's premise and conclusion say the same thing. Example: Fashion magazines do not harm women's self-esteem because women's trust is not damaged after reading the magazine. #5. False dichotomy: This misconception is based on the assumption that there are only two possible solutions, so refuting one decision means that another solution should be used. It ignores other alternative solutions. Example: If you want better public schools, you should raise taxes. If you don't want to raise taxes, you can't have the best schools #6. Hasty Generalization: Hasty Generalization occurs when the initiator uses too small a sample size to support a broad generalization. Example: Sally couldn't find any cute clothes in the boutique and couldn't Maura, so there are no cute clothes in the boutique. #7. Post Hoc/False Cause: This fallacy assumes that the correlation is equal to cause-and-effect relationship or, in other words, if one event predicts another event, it should also have caused the event. Example: A football team gets better grades than a baseball team, so playing football makes you smarter than playing baseball. #8. Missing point: In the missing point, the premise of the argument supports a specific conclusion, but not one that the author draws. Example: Antidepressants are too prescribed, which is dangerous, so they should be explicitly made illegal. #9. The focus is on confusion: This occurs when the author assumes that the cases that receive the most publicity are the most common cases. Example: 90% of news reports report negative events. Thus, it follows that 90% of the events that occur in the real world are negative. #10. Straw Man: In this delusion, the author puts forward one of his opponent's weak, less central arguments forward and destroys it by acting as this argument the essence of the question. Man A: We need to loosen beer laws. Man B: No, any society with unrestricted access to intoxicating loses its work ethic and only for immediate gratification. Types of reasoning that are logically wrong for specific popular misconceptions, see Misconceptions are arguments that are logically incorrect, undermine the logical validity of an argument, or are found to be unfounded. All forms of human communication can contain misconceptions. Because of their diversity, misconceptions are complex to classify. They can be classified by their structure (formal misconceptions) or content (unofficial misconceptions). Informal misconceptions, a larger group, can then be divided into categories such as improper presumption, misgeneries, errors in the appointment of a cause and effect team, and relevance among others. The use of misconceptions was commonplace when the purpose of the speaker to achieve general agreement supplanted common sense of reasoning. The premise should be found to be unfounded, the conclusion unproven (but not necessarily false), and the argument - unfounded. Formal Misconceptions Main Article: Formal Delusion Formal Misconception is a mistake in the form of an argument. All formal misconceptions are non sequitur types. Appealing to probability is a statement that takes something for granted, because it will probably be so (or may be so). The argument of delusion (also known as erroneous delusion) is the assumption that if an argument is wrong, then the conclusion is false. The basic rate is a probability judgment based on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the influence of previous probabilities. A misconception of a connection is the assumption that a result that satisfies multiple conditions at the same time is more likely than a result that satisfies one of them. Misconception of a masked person (illegal replacement of identical) - replacing identical designers in a true statement can lead to false. A torrential misconception of A's propositional delusion is a mistake that concerns complex sentences. For a connection to be true, the true values of its constituent parts must satisfy the respective logical connecting connections that occur in it (most often: The following misconceptions are related to relationships whose true values are not guaranteed and therefore not guaranteed to give true conclusions. A or B; A, therefore not B.,9 Confirming the subsequent - preceding in indicative conditional stated that is true because the subsequent is true; If A, B; B, therefore A. A. Denial of the preceding - subsequent in indicative conditional is claimed to be false, because the preceding is false; If A, B; not A, so not B.,9 quantitative delusions Error quantitative estimation is a mistake in logic where quantitative premises are at odds with the quantitative assessment of the withdrawal. Types of quantitative misconceptions: misconceptions: misconception is an argument that has a universal premise and a concrete conclusion. Formal silological misconceptions of silological misconceptions are logical misconceptions that occur in sillogisms. Positive conclusion from the negative premise (illegal negativity) - categorical sillogism has a positive conclusion, but at least one negative premise. The delusion of exclusive premises is categorical sillogism, which is invalid, because both of its premises are negative. Misconception of four terms (quaternio terminorum) - categorical sillogism, which has four terms. Illegal major is a categorical sillogism, which is invalid, because its main term does not apply in the basic premise, but spreads in custody. An illegal minor is a categorical sillogism, which is invalid, as its short term does not extend in a minor premise, but extends in custody. Negative conclusion from the positive premise (illegal affirmative) - categorical sillogism has a negative conclusion, but the affirmative. Misconception is undistributed by the average - the average term in categorical sillogism does not extend. Modal delusion - confusion is a necessity with sufficiency. Condition X is necessary for Y, if X is required even for the Y. X capability will not result in Y by itself, but if there is no X, there will be no Y. For example, oxygen is needed for fire. But we can't assume that there's oxygen everywhere, there's fire. Condition X is enough for Y if the X itself is enough to cause Y. For example, bus riding is a sufficient mode of transport to get to work. But there are other modes of transport - car, taxi, bike, walking - that can be used. The modal sphere of delusion - the degree of unreasonable necessity is placed in conclusion. Unofficial Misconceptions Main Article: Unofficial Misconceptions Unofficial Misconceptions - Arguments that are logically unfounded due to the lack of well-founded premises. Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle, error of the average, argumentum ad temperantiam) - provided that the compromise between the two positions is always correct. Continuum of delusion (misconception of beards, line of drawing delusion, sorit delusion, misleading heaps, bald man delusion, decision point of delusion) - wrongly rejecting claims for being inaccurate. Correlational misconceptions based on correlation are suppressed by the correlated - the correlate is redefined so that one alternative becomes impossible (e.g., I'm not fat because I'm thinner than it). The defining misconception is the definition of a term used in an argument in a biased way (e.g. using loaded terms). The person you're making is an argument, that the listener would accept the definition, which made it difficult to refute the argument. Divine delusion (argument from unprincipled) - claiming that because something is incredible or amazing, it must be result of a higher, divine, alien or paranormal agency. Double counting is the counting of events or incidents more than once in probabilistic reasoning, which results in the sum of the probability of all cases exceeding unity. Equivocation is the use of a term with more than one meaning in a statement without specifying what the meaning is intended. The ambiguous average term is the use of a medium term with several values. The definition of a digression is a change in the meaning of a word when an objection is objected. Motte-and-bailey is a confluence of two positions with similar properties, one modest and easy to defend (motte) and another controversial (Bailey). The disputer at first declares a controversial position, but when challenged, declares that they promote a modest position. The misconception of the accent is a change in the meaning of the statement, without specifying which word the accent falls on. A convincing definition is to use the true or conventional meaning of the term, whereas, in fact, using an unusual or altered definition. (cf. if-by-whiskey) Environmental misconception is a conclusion about the nature of an entity based solely on aggregated statistics collected for the group to which this entity belongs. Etymological delusion - provided that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase necessarily similar to its actual modern use. The confusion of the composition is provided that something true in the whole part must also be true for the whole. The confusion of separation is assuming that something true in the composite thing must be true for all or some parts of it.