Defining and developing a theory of sport intelligence by GARRATH JAMES ROSSLEE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF I FERNS OCTOBER 2014 Summary Much has been researched and written on the concept of intelligence in the last century and while much of it has been applied in educational settings and commercial organisations, little has been investigated and applied within a sports context. Early research in the 1970s identified sport intelligence as comprising primarily of reaction time and recall and it was only in 2002, some 30 years later, that it again appeared in the literature with sport intelligence being considered a psychological characteristic of Olympic champions. The research of Gould, Diffenbach and Moffet (2002) into sport intelligence hypothesised that sport intelligence included having “the ability to analyse, being innovative, being a student of the sport, making good decisions, understanding the nature of elite sport, and being a quick learner” (p. 5). Later research by Blue (2009) proposed a comprehensive model of sport intelligence as it applied to golf wherein he posited that sport intelligence – albeit in a golfing context – comprised a ‘competition’ and ‘developmental’ intelligence. Other than the thematic assessment of Gould et al. (2002) and the golf-specific study of Blue (2009) no literature, data or research was available internationally, on the African continent nor in South Africa. The researcher responded to the call for further research and decided to complete a qualitative, exploratory study in South Africa. The research commenced by covering what was available on sport intelligence literature and to build on it by reviewing and considering general intelligence theories. Both orthodox and unorthodox approaches were considered and the review suggested that sport intelligence would conceptually and theoretically consist of a number of dimensions and constructs including a series of cognitive processes like memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making and other rational processes. i The third source of literature was a review of sport psychology and it emphasised the importance and significance of emotional, motivational and other psychological factors in addition to the influences of personality. The literature review led to the researcher identifying 14 hypotheses which were explored with 15 credible sport participants, whereafter a thorough content analysis of the 14 hypotheses was performed. 13 of the 14 initial hypotheses were accepted with one included as a theme within another. The thematic assessment resulted in the identification and development of a systems model of sport intelligence comprising six components as follows: A neurophysiological component; A cognitive/rational component; An emotional/affective component; A team/group component; A societal/ecological component; and A metaphysical component. The investigation and analyses furthermore indicated that the components do not exist in isolation of one another and each dimension seems of equal significance. The data suggested a parallel process and dynamic interplay between these components and this led to a systemic perspective being adopted when synthesising the model into a logical and coherent framework. Each of the components were critically evaluated from a cognitive and systemic perspective. The systemic perspective proposed challenges the view that performance is not only an individual endeavour but also a systemic endeavour. ii KEY TERMS: Sport intelligence Competitive intelligence Developmental intelligence Neurophysiological sub-system Cognitive/rational sub-system Emotional/affective sub-system Team component Societal component Metaphysical component iii Declaration I, Garrath James Rosslee, declare that Defining and developing a theory of sport intelligence is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that I have not previously submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at UNISA for another qualification or at any other higher education institution. _____________________ G.J. Rosslee iv Acknowledgements My thanks goes to the following people: Prof. Ilse Ferns: For your encouragement, support, insight and helping make the research process enjoyable My family: Diane, Benjamin, Adam, Isabella and Victoria – for the time and space to pursue my interest Stacey Shutte: More than a Personal Assistant. Thank you for the countless hours typing, transcribing, checking, formatting, correcting and for meeting all our deadlines Research participants: For your time and input and who understand the importance and significance of sport intelligence v Contents Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………….. 1 1.1 Background …………………………………………………………. 1 1.2 Problem statement and research questions ………………….. 4 1.3 Research aims ……………………………………………………… 4 1.4 Paradigm perspective …………………………………………….. 5 1.5 Literature review …………………………………………………… 7 1.6 Research rationale ………………………………………………… 7 1.6.1 Research problem …………………………………………………. 7 1.6.2 Research approach ………………………………………………... 7 1.6.3 The researcher ……………………………………………………… 7 1.6.3.1 Cognitive processes including mental speed, working memory and reasoning …………………………………………… 8 1.6.3.2 Successful and multiple intelligence …………………………… 8 1.6.3.3 Emotional intelligence …………………………………………….. 9 1.6.3.4 Knowledge and learning ………………………………………….. 10 1.6.3.5 Motivation …………………………………………………………… 11 1.6.3.6 Psychological agility and creativity …………………………….. 12 1.6.3.7 Mental strength and personality ………………………………… 13 1.6.3.8 Relationship competence ………………………………………… 13 1.6.3.9 Decision making …………………………………………………… 14 1.7 Research strategy …………………………………………………. 14 1.8 Purpose of the study ……………………………………………… 14 1.9 Motivation …………………………………………………………… 15 1.10 Conclusions, limitations and recommendations …………….. 16 1.11 Presentation ………………………………………………………… 16 1.12 Conclusion ………………………………………………………….. 18 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………………………... 19 vi 2.1 Sport intelligence …………………………………………………... 19 2.1.1 Premises of sport intelligence …………………………………… 19 2.2 Intelligence theory …………………………………………………. 24 2.2.1 Basic definitions and definitional complexity ………………… 24 2.3 History and background of intelligence theory ………………. 28 2.4 Basic processes and intelligence ………………………………. 31 2.4.1 Hypothesis 1: Mental speed and other processes …………… 31 2.5 Hypothesis 2: Working memory …………………………………. 32 2.5.1 Relevance to sport intelligence theory …………………………. 32 2.6 Hypothesis 3: Problem solving, reasoning and intelligence .. 33 2.6.1 Conceptual link with sport intelligence ………………………… 33 2.7 Hypothesis 4: Kinds of intelligence …………………………….. 37 2.7.1 Introduction and context ………………………………………….. 37 2.7.2 Theory of multiple intelligence …………………………………... 38 2.8 Hypothesis 5: Theory of successful intelligence …………….. 43 2.8.1 Analytical intelligence …………………………………………….. 45 2.8.2 Creative intelligence ………………………………………………. 46 2.8.3 Practical/contextual intelligence ………………………………… 46 2.9 Hypothesis 6: Emotional intelligence …………………………... 48 2.10 Hypothesis 7: Intelligence, curiosity and related constructs.. 54 2.10.1 Intelligence and personality ……………………………………… 55 2.11 Hypothesis 8: Intelligence, knowledge and experience …….. 58 2.12 Hypothesis 9: Intelligence and motivation …………………….. 61 2.13 Hypothesis 10: Intelligence and creativity …………………….. 63 2.14 Hypothesis 11: Developing intelligence ……………………….. 65 2.15 Sport psychology and sport intelligence ………………………. 67 2.15.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………. 67 2.16 Hypothesis 12: Psychological strength ………………………... 67 2.16.1 Motivation and emotion …………………………………………… 68 vii 2.16.2 Emotions …………………………………………………………….. 70 2.17 Hypothesis 13: Relationship competence ……………………... 75 2.17.1 Interpersonal competence and intelligence …………………… 75 2.17.2 Intrapersonal competence and intelligence …………………… 76 2.18 Hypothesis 14: Decision making ………………………………… 78 2.19 A conceptual model of sport intelligence ……………………… 81 2.19.1 Background …………………………………………………………. 81 2.19.2 Proposed conceptual model of sport intelligence …………… 82 2.19.2.1 Rational, emotional and political domains ……………………. 82 2.19.2.2 On-field/off-field: A systemic orientation ………………………. 82 2.20 Proposed dimensions …………………………………………….. 83 2.20.1 Hypothesis 1: Mental speed ……………………………………… 83 2.20.2 Hypothesis 2: Working memory …………………………………. 83 2.20.3 Hypothesis 3: Reasoning and problem solving ………………. 83 2.20.4 Hypothesis 4: Multiple intelligences ……………………………. 84 2.20.5 Hypothesis 5: Successful intelligence …………………………. 84 2.20.6 Hypothesis 6: Emotional intelligence …………………………... 84 2.20.7 Hypothesis 7: Intellectual curiosity as a component of personality ………………………………………………………….. 84 2.20.8 Hypothesis 8: Value of knowledge and experiences ………… 85 2.20.9 Hypothesis 9: Motivation …………………………………………. 85 2.20.10 Hypothesis 10: Intelligence and creativity implies change …. 85 2.20.11 Hypothesis 11: Learning and development ……………………. 85 2.20.12 Hypothesis 12: Mental skills, psychological strength and personality ………………………………………………………….. 85 2.20.13 Hypothesis 13: Relationship competence …………………….. 86 2.20.14 Hypothesis 14: Effective decision makers …………………….. 86 2.21 Summary …………………………………………………………….. 86 Chapter 3: THEORETICAL ORIENTATION …………………………………… 87 viii 3.1 Introduction