The Socio-Economic Consequences of Tourism in Levuka, Fiji A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy At Lincoln University By David Fisher Lincoln University 2000 Abstract This thesis examines the proposition that the local population at a tourist destination copy the economic behaviour of tourists and leam to give economic value to the same objects and activities that are demonstrated by tourists. Levuka, the old capital of Fiji, served as the case study. It was found that decisions are based on the experiences and the cultural template of which those decisions are a part. There are many acculturating factors involved in the leaming process as a subsistance-based economy becomes more monetised. The purchasing habits of tourists have little obvious effect. However, there is evidence that what is of value to tourists and what encourages them to visit the destination are not fully appreciated by many of the host popUlation. Examples of these culturally dissimilar values are extemalities such as the physical structures of the built environment and unquantifiable factors such as the ambience of the destination. It is argued that an understanding of the factors that have created cultural rules is necessary if a complete analysis of the effects of tourism is to be undertaken. This can be achieved by considering change as a process and tracing that process by examining the cultural history of the host community. Tourism should be seen as another aspect of change. The response to tourism will then be seen as a new challenge that will be met using the lessons previously leamt and incorporated into the cultural template. Levuka Plate 1. Source: Siers 1985 God gave all men all earth to love, But since our hearts are small, Ordained for each one spot should prove Beloved over all; That, as He watched Creation's birth, So we, in godlike mood, May of our love create our earth And see that it is good. So one shall Baltic pines content, As one some Surrey glade, Or one the palm-grove's droned lament Before Levuka's Trade. Each to his choice, and I rejoice The lot has fallen to me In a fair ground--in a fair ground-­ Yea, Sussex by the sea! Rudyard Kipling, 1902 Acknowledgements This thesis could not have been completed without the help, guidance, encouragement and understanding of many people both at Lincoln and Levuka. Firstly, thanks go to my supervisors, Professor David Simmons, Dr. Tracy Bemo and Professor Peter Earl. I would also like to thank Chrys Hom for her always insightful comments and laughter; and especially Jo who knew when to tell me that life exists outside a thesis, and when to tell me that theses do not write themselves. Special thanks go to the people of Levuka. There are far too many that deserve acknowledgement and it is unfair to single out individuals but I would like to mention The Tui Levuka; the Mayor of Levuka, Mr George Gibson; and Julia, Arnold and Liza Ditrich who taught me the finer points of kava, and banana crepe appreciation. Finally I would like to thank my co-opted supervisor Vienna Cummins, who always projected her comments in such an understandable manner. Fijian Pronunciation In the text of this thesis all Fijian proper names have been spelt in the Fijian form. This requires an explanation of Fijian pronunciation. Consonants are pronounced as in English except for the following: B as 'mb' in December D as 'nd' in hand Q as 'ng' in linger G as 'ng' in bring C as 'th' in tooth Vowels are regular and pronounced as: A as in ff!:ther E as in gauge I as in c~dar o as in nQte U as in true So, for example, Cakobau's name is pronounced Thakombau, and Nadi is pronounced Naandi. Contents Chapter One - Introduction ........................................................................................... 7 Theoretical development of the study of tOUl1sm ..................................................... 8 Research objectives ................................................................................................ 8 Definition of economic behaviour ............................................................................ 9 Thematic approach .................................. :............................................................ 11 Structure of the thesis .......................................................................................... 12 Summary of Organisation .................................................................................... 13 Epistemology and Methodology ............................................................................. 14 The study of tourism ............................................................................................ 14 Theoretical basis of the research ............................................................................. 16 Behavioural economics ........................................................................................ 16 Paradigmatic approach ......................................................................................... 20 Symbolic interactionism and social constructionism .......................................... 25 Summary of epistemology ................................................................................... 26 Data Collection ........................................................................................................ 27 Choice of Levuka ................................................................................................. 27 Period of study ..................................................................................................... 27 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 28 The respondents ................................................................................................... 30 Chapter Two - Literature review ................................................................................ 33 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 33. Tourism ................................................................................................................... 33 Tourism and change ............................................................................................. 36 The growth of tourism ......................................................................................... 37 Macroeconomic consequences of tourism ........................................................... 37 Socio-economic impacts of tourism .................................................................... 42 Tourist types ........................................................................................................ 45 Forms of tourism ................................................................................................... 50 1 Authenticity ......................................................................................................... 50 Changing values and morals ................................................................................ 58 Tourism and values .............................................................................................. 61 The demonstration effect ..................................................................................... 66 Political economy and tourism ............................................................................ 73 Culture ................................................................................................................. 77 Pacific Island economics ..................................................................................... 80 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 84 Chapter Three - Background to Levuka ..................................................................... 86 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 86 Geography of Levuka .......................................................................................... 87 Fijian Social Structures ........................................................................................ 90 The first Europeans .............................................................................................. 92 Political structures and the introduction of European technology ....................... 93 The development of European Levuka ................................................................ 93 Decline of Levuka ................................................................................................ 95 Levuka today - industry and people .................................................................... 96 A thematic history of Levuka .................................................................................. 98 The economy of Levuka ...................................................................................... 99 Ethnicity and tourism in Levuka ........................................................................ 100 Social structures ................................................................................................. 102 The meaning of Levuka ..................................................................................... 103 Technological change ........................................................................................ 104 Political economy