|ntroduction to infant development Edited by Alan Slater University of Exeter, UK Michael Lewis University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey CHAPTER SiX The deveJopment of intelligence in infancy SCOTT P. JOHNSON and ALAN 5LATER n rocluction Cognition is a term referring to mental abilities --thinking, memory, problem solving, categorization, reasoning, language development, and so on. In Chapters 7-10 we focus on specific aspects of cognitive development, and in this chapter we give an account of broad theoretical approaches to the development of intelligence in infancy. Infancy is a period during which a great deal of intellectual develop ment takes place, and much of it can be seen as falling within four major approaches. * One of the most influential theorists to develop a theory of cognitive development was Jean Piaget ( 1896-1980), whose Piagetian approach, i!i iiii involving six stages of sensorimotor development, is described in the next section. The nativist approach argues that some forms of knowledge are innate, or present in very early infancy, and form a core around which more mature cognitive functioning will develop. The information processing approach attempts to understand the reasoning processes used by infants and the w@s in which the processing of information changes over time. z, ..... I The fourth broad way of looking at cognitive development is the psychometric approach which involves testing infants to measure their current level of development, and to predict subsequent cognitive development. These major approaches take quite different views on cognitive develop ment, stressing different aspects of intellectual functioning and how it changes or remains constant over time. The views therefore complement each other ili! 6: The development of inteltigence in infancy Stage 3: secondary cir( and often shed light on different aspects of development. A point worth em i In this stage, secondary ( phasizing, and which has been mentioned in other chapters, is that all areas as 'discovering procedu of development impact on each other, so that advances in cognition influence circular reaction refers t developments in all other areas of development. We will now examine each world, not simply for t of the four approaches in turn. schemes now results in hear the sound, hitting move. Also in stage 3, example, looking, grasf Piagetian appreach fashion. Piaget (1937/1954) proposed a theory of infant cognitive development organ Stage 4: coordinotion ized around four broad themes: object, space, time, and causality (cf. Kant, 1767/1934). Knowledge in these domains developed in tandem, and they Secondary circular rea, were thought to be highly interdependent. The principal goal of Piagetian means to an end. This theory was to explain objectification, the knowledge of the self and external example, the child mi covered: this is means-, objects as distinct and separate entities, persisting across time and space, and following common-sense causal rules. Objectification is a major cognitive is the means to the end achievement that takes place during the first 2years, roughly, of postnatal have been interesting el development in most children, which Piaget termed the sensorimotor period. the desired goal is one s During this time, the child's thinking is manifest in overt actions. Objecti Stage 5: tertiary circul. fication stems from the recognition of one's body as an independent object In this stage, the child and one's movements as movements of objects through space, analogous to exploration, or tertiary movements of other objects. This, in turn, happens via development and circular reactions, in a coordination of schemes, or action repertoires. exploration of objects: to see what happens, oJ The sensorimotor stages if that will result in obt Piaget suggested that sensorimotor intelligence emerges in six stages, each Stage 6: the beginnin based on the infant's acquisition of novel schemes and scheme combinations. (18-24 months) All ages provided here are approximate. Finally, at the end of th Stage I: modiJfcation of reflexes (birth to 1 month) new means via menta of actions mentally, at In this stage, termed modification of reflexes, the infant engages in reflexive engaging in overt beha" behavior repeatedly in response to stimulation; gradually the reflexes are adjusted to meet the requirements of different circumstances. For example, reflexive sucking behaviors can be modified via actions of the tongue, lips, The development ot and swallowing, depending on what is placed in the mouth. Piaget proposed as wel Stage 2: primary circular reactions (I-4 months) concepts, leading to o ponding to the six sta This stage sees the emergence of primary circular reactions. A circular reaction (Piaget, 193611952). In is simply a scheme that is repeated; a primary circular reaction is one that is of recognition memory repeated simply because it is interesting in and of itself, and often provides an contact shortly after k opportunity to explore the world. In stage 2, for example, sucking becomes in the direction of a p a scheme (rather than a reflex) as a means of exploring the environment. piagetian approach i ',i Stage 3: secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) A point worth em In this stage, secondary circular reactions are first seen, which Piaget described ers, is that all areas as 'discovering procedures for making interesting events last.' A secondary cognition influence circular reaction refers to an activation of schemes to produce an event in the now examine each world, not simply for the pleasure of activating the scheme. Production of schemes now results in a specific desired outcome: shaking a rattle in order to hear the sound, hitting a ball to make it roll, or kicking one's feet to see them move. Also in stage 3, schemes are beginning to be organized: in the rattle example, looking, grasping, and shaking schemes are used in a coordinated fashion. tevelopment organ Stage 4: coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months) causality (cf. Kant, tandem, and they Secondary circular reactions now become coordinated and intentional, a d goal of Piagetian means to an end. This implies a goal, and a plan to reach the goal. For he self and external example, the child might push aside daddy's hand to obtain a toy being time and space, and covered: this is means-end behavior where one behavior (pushing the hand) a major cognitive is the means to the end (obtaining the toy). Earlier, pushing the hand might ughly, of postnatal have been interesting enough by itself (and it still might be), but in this case msorimotor period. the desired goal is one step removed from this action. rt actions. Objecti Stage 5: tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) independent object ;pace, analogous to In this stage, the child begins to produce behaviors that signal novelty and t development and exploration, or tertiary circular reactions• This means combining secondary circular reactions, in a purely exploratory fashion, deliberate trial and error exploration of objects: dropping a toy from the high chair in different ways, to see what happens, or pulling a blanket on which a desired toy rests, to see if that will result in obtaining the toy. in six stages, each Stage 6: the beginnings of thought--mental representations rome combinations. (I 8-24 months) q Finally, at the end of the sensorh mtor period during stage 6, the child invents new means via mental representation: trying out different combinations engages in reflexive of actions mentally, and anticipating the consequences without necessarily lly the reflexes are engaging in overt behaviors. nces. For example, of the tongue, lips, The development of spatial and object concepts th. Piaget proposed as well that the development of spatial concepts and obiect concepts, leading to objectification, were organized into six stages corres • A circular reaction ponding to the six stages of general cognitive development just described action is one that is (Player, 1936/1952). Initially (during stages I and 2), infants exhibited a kind Ld often provides an of recognition memory, for example, seeking the mother's breast after losing e, sucking becomes contact shortly after birth, and within several months, continuing to look te enviromlrent. in the direction of a person's exit from the room. These behaviors were not ' f: 6: The development of intelligence in infancy Overview systematic, however, and they were considered more passive than active. For Piaget, active search schemes, initiated by the child, were a critical feature of Piagetian theory enjoys object concepts, both as evidence for their development, and as a mechanism that Piaget described, su by which development occurs. have beeu reported. Inc More active search behavior emerges after 4 months, marking the onset bution Piaget left us a 1 of objectification during stage 3. Piaget outlined five examples, in roughly paradigms which contir chronological order (i.e., the order in which they could be elicited across nitive development. Nm stage 3). The first was visual accommodation to rapid movements, when il i cognitive development an infant responds to a dropped object by looking down toward the floor, whether infant cognitic behavior that becomes more systematic when the infant herself drops the idea that early concepts object. A second behavior, interrupted prehension, refers to the infant's and a function of the attempts to re-acquire an object that was dropped or taken from her hand review evidence for alt if it is out of sight briefly and within easy reach. (There is no search if !i il sophisticated foundatio] the object is fully hidden.) Deferred circular reactions describes the child's gestures when interrupted during object-orieuted play activity, resuming the game after some delay (involving memory of object, actions, and context). ) Reconstruction of an invisible whole from a visible fraction occurs when, Nativist approach for example, the child retrieves an object from a cover when only a part of the object was visible.