UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara The Dark Side of Rome: A Social History of Nighttime in Ancient Rome A dissertation submitted for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Jason Linn Committee in charge: Professor John W.I. Lee, Co-Chair Professor Beth Digeser, Co-Chair Professor Claudia Rapp, Universität Wien Professor Michael A. Osborne, Oregon State Univeristy September 2014 The dissertation of Jason Linn is approved. __________________________________________________________ Professor John W.I. Lee, Co-Chair __________________________________________________________ Professor Beth Digeser, Co-Chair __________________________________________________________ Professor Claudia Rapp _________________________________________________________ Professor Michael A. Osborne September 2014 The Dark Side of Rome: A Social History of Nighttime in Ancient Rome Copyright © 2014 by Jason Linn iii Jason Linn Department of History 849 Higuera St. Apt 237 California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo, CA 93401 San Luis Obispo, CA 93407 [email protected] (847) 650-3387 Education Ph.D. History, University of California at Santa Barbara, 2014 Qualifying fields: Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece, Byzantium, History of Science M.A. Classics, University of Colorado at Boulder, 2007 Post-Bac Classics, University of Pennsylvania, 2005 B.A. Political Science, Western Michigan University, magna cum laude, 2002 Dissertation The Dark Side Of Rome: A Social History Of Nighttime In Ancient Rome Committee: John W.I. Lee, Beth Digeser, Claudia Rapp, Michael A. Osborne Publications “Roman Grain Supply from 442 to 455” Journal of Late Antiquity 5.2 (Fall 2013): 322-345 Review of Sparta: Comparative Approaches, S. Hodkinson (ed.) Classical Review 62.1 (2013): 156-158 Teaching Lecturer California Polytechnic State University, 2013-14 World History: 1000 to 1800 World History: Antiquity to 1789 Western Civilization: Antiquity to Renaissance UC Santa Barbara, 2012 The Greek World: 323-30 BC iv Teaching Assistant UC Santa Barbara Environmental Studies Program, 2012-13 Introduction to Environmental Studies, 2 quarters Introduction to Social and Cultural Environments, 1 quarter UC Santa Barbara History Department, 2009-12 World History: Prehistory-AD 1000, 6 quarters World History: 1000-1700, 1 quarter World History: 1700-present, 1 quarter Western Civilization: 1050-1715, 3 quarters University of Colorado-Boulder Classics Department, 2007 Bread & Circuses, 1 semester Conference Presentations “Is It Morning Yet?: Nocturnal Boredom in Ancient Rome” Friends of Ancient History, Pomona College, November 2013 “Can You Hear Me Now?: Rome’s Nocturnal Soundscape” Nox erat: Night and Nocturnal Activities in the Ancient World, University of Virginia, March 2013 “Snuggling With Your Identity: Beds in Ancient Rome” Private and Public in the Roman house, New York University, October 2012 “Julian’s Laws: The Pagan Counteroffensive” North American Patristics Society, Chicago, May 2012 “Booty Calls and Ambushes: The Nocturnal Mirage in Classical Sparta” Rocky Mountain Interdisciplinary Graduate Student History Conference, University of Colorado at Boulder, September 2010 “Roman Grain Supply: 442-455” Ancient Borderlands Graduate Student Conference, UCSB, April 2010 Awards UCSB History Department outstanding TA (J. Bruce Anderson Memorial Award 2013) UCSB Academic Senate outstanding TA award (2011) North American Patristics Society Outstanding Student Paper (2012) v Mark Denenfeld Memorial Endowed Scholarship: Western Michigan Political Science Department (2001) Service to UC Santa Barbara Summer Teaching Associates Peer Advisor (2013) Intercollegiate Athletics Policy Board (2010-13) Borderlands Conference Planning Committee (2010, 2012) Chancellor’s Search Advisory Committee for the University Librarian (2010-11) Community Outreach Guest lecturer on “Ancient Greece” April 5, 2014 Las Brisas Retirement Community San Luis Obispo, CA Guest lecturer on “England” June 7, 2014 Las Brisas Retirement Community San Luis Obispo, CA Professional Memberships American Historical Association Association of Ancient Historians vi Abstract The Dark Side of Rome: A Social History on Nighttime in Ancient Rome by Jason Linn This dissertation explores nighttime in Ancient Rome. Although several monographs on the history of night have appeared in the last two decades, no one has focused on antiquity. Through the examination of literary sources from the second century BCE to late antiquity from histories, biographies, plays, novels, laws, art, archaeology, and theological treatises, this dissertation examines how Romans experienced and thought about night. Chapters one and two argue that night intensified emotions. The first chapter examines how Romans constructed the nocturnal soundscape. The change from day to night altered the meaning of some sounds. Other sounds induced more anger, fear, excitement, and even divine transcendence than they did during the day. The second chapter explores a reoccurring complaint Romans made about nighttime: it imprisoned them. The chapter charts how nocturnal boredom divided Romans: virtuous from reproachable, literate from illiterate, laborer from leisured. Nocturnal boredom led to creativity for some and trouble for others. Chapters three and four explore how night separated people by status and identity. The third chapter considers the slave experience at night. Sketching the problems night posed to masters, I argue that slaveholders were more concerned about where their slaves were than keeping them busy. Because masters desired to keep their human property accessible at all hours, many slaves spent their nights inactively confined. The fourth chapter examines how beds marked Roman identity. Where one slept separated the civilized from uncivilized, the rich from the poor, and the manly from the effeminate. vii Table of Contents I. Introduction 1 II. Rome’s Nocturnal Soundscape 12 III. Nocturnal Boredom in Ancient Rome 36 IV. Slavery at Night 64 V. Beds in Roman Culture 94 VI. Conclusion 127 VII. Bibliography 132 viii List of Images Image 1: Mosaic from Carthage 19 Image 2: House of Triclinium, Pompeii 70 Image 3: House of the Chaste Lovers, Pompeii 71 Image 4: House of the Chaste Lovers, Pompeii 78 Image 5: House of the Chaste Lovers, Pompeii 79 Image 6: Casa della Farnesina, cubiculum D, Rome 80 Image 7: Casa della Farnesina 82 Image 8: Layout of a Roman house, from A. Wallace-Hadrill (1988) 84 Image 9: Rural slave sleeping quarters, from J. Rossiter 89 Image 10: House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii 98 Image 11: Love Scene Mosaic, Centocelle 112 Image 12: The Horse Mosaics, Carthage 113 ix Introduction Ammianus disliked Gallus. In a character sketch of Rome’s junior emperor, the fourth- century historian portrayed Gallus as a cruel despot, driven by temper and paranoia, who exacted punishments without due process. He sent spies into wealthy homes, and even acted so audaciously that (XIV.1):1 …[he] dared to undertake a serious disgrace, which Gallienus is said to have attempted at Rome with extreme shame. He used to wander through taverns at night with a few men, who were secretly equipped with a sword, and would ask people in Greek, which he spoke well, what they thought of Caesar. Gallus pulled this stunt with confidence in a city where nightlong light usually resembles the brightness of daylight. Finally, after having been recognized so many times, Gallus concluded that he would be seen if he ventured outside, except when he openly went out to do things which he thought would be considered serious. His activities led to much deep-seated groaning. We are supposed to feel appalled at Gallus, who abused his power and acted in ways unbecoming of a Roman emperor. Ammianus’ character sketch conveys how Romans thought darkness affected people, namely that night intensified preexisting daytime attributes. Gallus had already demonstrated his audacity during daytime by ignoring judicial protocol and invading privacy. By increasing Gallus’ confidence that he could conceal his identity, night exacerbated the emperor’s boldness. Ammianus accomplishes this by noting the emperor did this in a city well-lit during the night. In addition to showing how darkness increased Gallus’ boldness, this passage also conveys how night altered the meanings of actions. Ammianus expects our interpretation of Gallus’ subterfuge to change based on whether it was day or night. At first, we are supposed to think Gallus has an untrustworthy character because he exploits the cover of darkness to dupe his interlocutors into letting down their guards and divulging their true opinions. However, when 1All translations are my own except where noted otherwise. Gallus ausus est inire flagitium grave, quod Romae cum ultimo dedecore temptasse aliquando dicitur Gallienus, et adhibitis paucis clam ferro succinctis vesperi per tabernas palabatur et conpita quaeritando Graeco sermone, cuius erat inpendio gnarus, quid de Caesare quisque sentiret. et haec confidenter agebat in urbe ubi pernoctantium luminum claritudo dierum solet imitari fulgorem. postremo agnitus saepe iamque, si prodisset, conspicuum se fore contemplans, non nisi luce palam egrediens ad agenda quae putabat seria cernebatur. et haec quidem medullitus multis gementibus agebantur. 1 Ammianus informs us that Antioch had streetlights as bright as the day—no doubt exaggerating the resplendence of his hometown—we are meant to notice not Gallus’ untrustworthiness, but his audacity. To do something during the day meant one thing;