POLITECNICO DI TORINO Collegio di Ingegneria Meccanica, Aerospaziale, dell'Autoveicolo e della Produzione Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Ingegneria dell’Autoveicolo Tesi di Laurea Magistrale The Impact of Truck Electrification on Urban Logistics Relatore/i prof. Eugenio Morello Candidato Andrea De Arcangelis Luglio 2018 Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE URBAN LOGISTICS .............................................................. 4 1.1 Definition of the Subject.................................................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Why is Urban Logistics so important? ............................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Challenges........................................................................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Dealing with Urban Logistics ........................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 Regulatory Measures .................................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1.1 Time Access Restriction ......................................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1.2 Parking Regulations ............................................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1.3 Environmental Restrictions ................................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1.4 Size and Load Access Restrictions ......................................................................................................... 9 1.4.1.5 Freight-traffic Flow Management ......................................................................................................... 9 1.4.2 Potential Solutions ..................................................................................................................................... 10 1.4.2.1 Urban Consolidation Centers .............................................................................................................. 12 1.4.2.2 Night Delivery ...................................................................................................................................... 14 1.4.2.3 Electric Vehicles ................................................................................................................................... 16 2. STATE OF THE ART OF HEAVY GOOD VEHICLES IN URBAN LOGISTICS ............. 17 2.1 MISSION AND REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................... 17 2.2 TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF AVAILABLE POWERTRAINS ........................................ 18 2.2.1 Conventional Powertrains: Fuel Efficiency Technologies ........................................................................... 18 2.2.1.1 Engine Technologies ............................................................................................................................ 18 2.2.1.2 LNG powered trucks ............................................................................................................................ 23 2.2.1.3 Transmission and Driveline Technology .............................................................................................. 24 2.2.1.4 Road Load Technologies ...................................................................................................................... 27 2.2.1.5 Vehicle Technologies ........................................................................................................................... 28 2.2.1.6 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 30 2.2.2 Electric Powertrains .................................................................................................................................... 32 2.2.2.1 Technical Overview ............................................................................................................................. 32 2.2.2.2 Electric Trucks ...................................................................................................................................... 38 2.2.3 Hybrid Powertrains ..................................................................................................................................... 39 2.2.3.1 Degree of Hybridization ....................................................................................................................... 39 2.2.3.2 Hybrid Architectures............................................................................................................................ 40 2.2.3.3 Hybrid Categories ................................................................................................................................ 42 2.3 EU REGULATIONS ..................................................................................................... 43 2.3.1 Regulatory Framework ............................................................................................................................... 43 2.3.2 Emission Standards ..................................................................................................................................... 44 2.3.3 Introduction of CO2 Measurement ............................................................................................................. 47 2.4 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 49 3. FLEET ELECTRIFICATION: TECHNOLOGIES, INFRASTRUCTURES AND LOGISTIC MODELS............................................................................................................................ 50 3.1 TECHNOLOGICAL ENABLING FACTORS ................................................................. 50 3.1.1 Battery Energy Density ............................................................................................................................... 50 3.1.2 Cost Evolution ............................................................................................................................................. 50 3.2 INFRASTRUCTURES AND LOGISTIC MODELS ....................................................... 52 3.2.1 Energy Replenishment................................................................................................................................ 52 3.2.2 Recharging Stations location ...................................................................................................................... 53 3.2.3 Capacity of Recharging Stations ................................................................................................................. 53 3.2.4 Impact on the Electric Grid ......................................................................................................................... 54 3.2.4.1 Electric Mobility: a Challenge for the Power Sector ............................................................................ 54 3.2.4.2 EVs: from Problem to Solution ............................................................................................................ 57 4. IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF HGV ELECTRIFICATION IN URBAN LOGISTICS........... 59 4.1 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................. 59 4.2 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 59 4.2.1 Missions ...................................................................................................................................................... 59 4.2.2 Vehicles....................................................................................................................................................... 61 4.2.3 Scenarios .................................................................................................................................................... 63 4.2.4 Model Inputs .............................................................................................................................................. 66 4.2.4.1 Mission Inputs ..................................................................................................................................... 66 4.2.4.2 Vehicle Inputs ...................................................................................................................................... 66 4.3 THE MODEL ................................................................................................................ 71 4.3.1 Mission Calculations ................................................................................................................................... 71 4.3.2 Vehicle Calculations .................................................................................................................................... 72 4.3.3 Consumption Calculations .......................................................................................................................... 72 4.3.4 Battery Pack Calculations (only for EV versions) ........................................................................................ 73 4.3.5 Optimization (only for EV versions)