Defending America in Mixed Company: Gender in the U.S. Armed Forces Martha E. McSally Abstract: Women have voluntarily served to defend America since the birth of our nation, often driven by necessity or the ½ght for equal opportunity, but always limited by law or policy grounded in accepted gender roles and norms. Today, women compose 14 percent of the total active-duty military, and more than 255,000 have deployed to combat operations in Iraq or Afghanistan. Despite their exemplary ser- vice and performance in combat, women are still restricted from serving in more than 220,000 military positions solely because of their sex. Women also continue to be exempt from the Selective Service System, for which their male counterparts are required by law to register. Are these continued inconsistencies be- tween the sexes in the area of national defense incongruent with democratic tenets? Have we gone too far or not far enough in allowing or compelling women to defend the nation if required? May all our citizens be soldiers and all our soldiers citizens. –A toast by Sarah Livingston Jay, the wife of John Jay, at a ball celebrating the end of the Revolution (Fall 1783)1 Women have served as volunteers in the defense of America since the birth of our nation, often driv- MARTHA E. MCSALLY is Profes- en by necessity or the ½ght for equal opportunity, sor of National Security Studies at but always limited by law or policy grounded in the George C. Marshall European accepted gender roles and norms. Today, women Center for Security Studies. After make up more than 14 percent of the active-duty more than twenty-two years of ac- military force; since 2001, more than 255,000 have tive duty, she retired from the U.S. Air Force as a Colonel in August deployed to Operation Enduring Freedom or Oper- 2010. She was one of seven women ation Iraqi Freedom, in which more than 130 have ½rst selected to become ½ghter pi- been killed and almost 700 wounded.2 As of April lots after Congress repealed the 2011, despite their exemplary performance in direct restriction in 1991 and the Depart- combat roles in the air, sea, and on the ground, ment of Defense changed its poli- women as a group are still banned by Department cy in 1993. She was the ½rst woman of Defense (dod) policy from being assigned to in U.S. history to fly a ½ghter in combat and to command a ½ght- more than 220,000 of the 1.4+ million authorized er squadron. Her military awards active-duty positions–regardless of their individ- include the Defense Superior Ser- ual abilities and quali½cations.3 While every Amer- vice Medal and the Bronze Star. ican male is required by law, as a basic obligation of U.S. Government Document: No rights reserved 148 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DAED_a_00105 by guest on 27 September 2021 citizenship, to register for Selective Ser- the occupations of civil life. The constitu- Martha E. vice within one month of his eighteenth tion of the family organization, which is McSally birthday (or potentially suffer ½nes, im- founded in the divine ordinance, as well as prisonment, and denial of educational in the nature of things, indicates the do- and employment opportunities),4 wom- mestic sphere as that which properly be- en continue to be exempt from this re- longs to the domain and functions of wom- sponsibility of citizenship. anhood. The paramount destiny and mis- Current dod policies are rife with in- sion of woman are to ful½ll the noble and consistencies and inef½ciencies, result- benign of½ces of wife and mother. This is ing in confusion, inflexibility, and out- the law of the Creator. right violations of the self-imposed –U.S. Supreme Court Justice Joseph Brad- restrictions by the military. The male- ley, Bradwell v. State of Illinois (1873)7 only Selective Service law and dod poli- cies are also incongruent with three of War and the military ethos required to America’s democratic tenets: 1) a fun- ½ght and win wars have traditionally damental obligation of full citizenship is been considered masculine in nature, the requirement to defend the nation with peace and the need to be protected if needed; 2) the armed forces, whether de½ned as feminine. Men take life and conscripted or volunteer, should reflect women give life. Men protect and wom- the society they defend; and 3) the U.S. en are protected. Men are strong and cou- Constitution is now interpreted to pro- rageous and women are weak and emo- hibit discrimination or lack of equal op- 5 tional. Men are responsible to the state portunity based solely on gender. and women to their family. Men are mo- U.S. national security is not being pur- tivated to function in the horror of war by sued in mixed company consisting of all the thought of returning to the normalcy quali½ed American citizens; instead, ex- of home as symbolized by mother, wife, isting restrictions have limited women’s 6 sweetheart, and the nurses who care for full participation in the military. This them in battle. The increasing integra- essay will explain the gender norms that tion of women in the military has con- continue to curtail women’s rights and fused and contradicted these gender obligations to national defense; elabo- norms and roles. Nonetheless, female rate on the three democratic tenets that Americans’ participation in defense has should drive the composition of Ameri- been and is still limited by these general- ca’s armed forces; review the history of izations about what women as an entire women’s participation in U.S. defense class could and should do.8 and consideration for Selective Service in Take, for example, statements by Kath- light of these tenets and gender norms; leen Teague of the Eagle Forum. Testify- discuss the current gender situation in ing before a House Armed Services Com- the U.S. military; and make recommen- mittee in 1980 on women’s potential in- dations for the future. clusion in Selective Service registration, Teague said, “We expect our servicemen * * * to be tough enough to defend us against Man is, or should be, woman’s protector any enemy–and we want our women to and defender. The natural and proper ti- be feminine and human enough to trans- midity and delicacy which belongs to the form our servicemen into good hus- female sex evidently un½ts it for many of bands, fathers, and citizens upon their re- 140 (3) Summer 2011 149 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DAED_a_00105 by guest on 27 September 2021 Gender in turn from battle.” She also warned that quently, that the Citizens of America (with the U.S. “she and her colleagues were not about to few legal and of½cial exceptions) from 18 Armed Forces give up the right to be free from a military to 50 Years of Age should be borne on the obligation ‘just because a handful of Militia Rolls, provided with uniform Arms, women, unhappy with their gender, want and so far accustomed to the use of them. 9 to be treated like men.’” –General George Washington, “Sentiments In 1991, General Merrill McPeak, then on a Peace Establishment” (May 1783)11 chief of staff of the U.S. Air Force, tes- ti½ed to a Senate Armed Services Com- The democratic tenet that binds the mittee (which was deliberating potential rights of citizenship with the obligation repeal of the law that excluded women to defend the state is rooted in the writ- from flying combat aircraft) that he ings of America’s founding fathers and re- would pick a less-quali½ed male pilot flected in our Constitution and laws. This over a more-quali½ed female pilot for relationship was central to the suffrage a combat mission. He conceded that his and civil rights movements, grounding view did not make much sense, but it was the arguments that women and African simply the way he felt. A year later, he Americans served in defense of the Unit- told a House Committee: “I believe the ed States and should therefore be granted combat exclusion law is discrimination all rights of citizens.12 The principle re- against women. And second, that it works mains strongly present in immigration to their disadvantage in a career context. law: past applicants for citizenship, male . And I still think it is not a good idea for and female alike, had their applications me to have to order women into combat. rejected if they refused to take an oath Combat is about killing people. Even that they would bear arms to defend the though logic tells us that women can nation. The current law mandating males [conduct combat operations] as well as ages eighteen to twenty-½ve to register men, I have a very traditional attitude for Selective Service requires even those about wives and mothers and daughters males living in the United States as aliens being ordered to kill people.” At the time, to register as a reflection of obligations of McPeak was responsible for organizing, residency and a possible path to citizen- training, and equipping the Air Force to ship.13 Indeed, honorable service in the fly, ½ght, and win in defense of America, military is today a guaranteed road to cit- yet he was willing to accept a less-capable izenship,14 further evidence of our belief force to ½t with his personal attitudes on 10 in the link between military service and the proper role of women.