Song in the Anti-Apartheid and Reconciliation Movements in South Africa A Senior Honors Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for graduation with research distinction in International Studies in the undergraduate colleges of The Ohio State University By Nora Makky The Ohio State University June 2007 Project Advisor: Professor Amy Horowitz, Department of Humanities 1 As apartheid developed in South Africa, political, cultural, and religious resistance emerged. This essay will explore the history of songs used in the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa. Studying music’s role in the South African liberation movement reveals various issues concerning the social dynamics and cultural history of the nation. Exploring the soundscapes of South African independence opens space for a new perspective and better understanding of the way diverse communities formed a unified movement to resist apartheid. Music helped people of diverse tribal and racial identities transcend differences that remained salient in other contexts. This paper draws on a wide variety of scholarly sources in disciplines such as history and musical ethnography. Interviews with Gabi Mkhize, a current member of the African National Congress (ANC), Ohio State University Graduate Student, and isiZulu instructor, offer evidence to support the centrality of music in the anti-apartheid movement. Music spanned ethnic differences, united generations, and aided in the organization of South Africans against their oppressive white government. The findings of this project will expand upon prior research and provide specific historical data to substantiate the claims that music indeed has a strong impact on the revolution in South Africa. Song is embedded in South African culture and it is not surprising that this medium would serve as a principal vehicle in defeating the apartheid government. Songs were used to hide protest slogans, banned materials, secret information, etc. Further research concerning the historic role music played in unifying and liberating oppressed communities might consider other timeframes in black South African history or explore the role of music and politics in the context of white South 2 African communities. Other historic occurrences might also be approached through the study of music, then compared and contrasted to South Africa’s experience. The portability and flexibility of the music allowed it to play a crucial role in the liberation movement against apartheid. At the height of the South African madness…Others were engaging apartheid with the guns. Others were engaging them through discussion. Others were engaging ‘em through song. That’s how we managed to turn the tide of the world. -Sifiso Ntuli (Amandla! 2003) What is apartheid? In 1652 the course of South African history changed in dramatic ways. 1652 marked the year South Africa began on a new path. European settlers landed on the Cape and over the course of subsequent years they began exploiting natural resources on many different levels which continued for centuries. The discovery of diamonds and gold in South Africa in 1867 and 1886, respectively, had a dynamic impact on the area as a whole (Thompson 115). Not only did the Mineral Revolution allow the White population to export the valuables abroad, it intrinsically caused the demand for cheap labor to skyrocket. Non-white racial groups in South Africa, Blacks (native to Africa), Indians (imported as indentured workers to work on sugar plantations in the Natal region of South Africa), and Coloreds (the descendants of slave women and White men), were now a commodity. Human beings were exploited to supply the workforce needed to run the mines. Black South African males were recruited from the rural areas; this forced them to leave their families behind for months, sometimes years. This caused the disintegration of 3 traditional tribal cohesiveness. Patriarchal societies turned over power to women. Black people drawn to urban areas were unable to reside within the city limits unless they were a White person’s servant, so squatting areas around the mining centers gave rise to areas that came to be known as townships. Men from diverse tribes were now residing in the ghettos around the urban centers in appalling living conditions; the housing near the mines was horribly cramped and inhumane. Some men had to live in the mine-owned compounds at the insistence of the mine-owners, instead of squatting in the townships. The compounds exhibited horrendous conditions comparable to the townships, and in addition, living under the mine company’s control gave the White men tremendous power over the Black workers’ lives. If one did not show up for work, a mining officer could go to the Black worker’s cramped sleeping area and force him back to his hard labor. The compounds and the mines as a whole, created the necessary platform for Whites to establish complete control over the races. Black workers were suppressed in the work place. Certain jobs were reserved for White mine workers only, and those positions commanded the highest wages. The White worker often made up to eight times as much as his Black counterpart (Thompson 156). Discrimination in the workplace was apparent; however, the need for cash to pay the White government’s taxes forced the Black people to deal with such subjugation. These, and many other inequalities, came to a head in 1948 with the White National Party deriving a plan of complete segregation entitled apartheid. The leader of this party, Daniel Malan, is credited by some as the ‘architect’ of the radical segregation instituted in South Africa. 4 Malan’s platform was known as apartheid. apartheid was a new term but an old idea. It literally means ‘apartness’ and it represented codification in one oppressing system of all the laws and regulations that had kept Africans in an inferior position to Whites for centuries. What had been more or less de facto was to become relentlessly de jure. The often haphazard segregation of the past three hundred years was to be consolidated into a monolithic system that was diabolical in its detail, inescapable in its reach, and overwhelming in its power (Mandela 111). With the blossoming of apartheid, many common discriminatory practices that had existed since the European arrival at the Cape were written into South African laws and implemented to the extreme. Despite the overwhelming segregation in South Africa, the oppressed people found strength in their family, friends, and political leaders. The Anti-apartheid Movement The African National Congress (ANC), a large group of Africans led by prominent political activists, was founded in 1912 (Mandela 579). The ANC assumed the leadership role in the struggle and it determined the type of opposition to be used against apartheid. The first approach supported by the ANC was to resist within the means of the law. As time passed, ANC leaders continued to encourage a more aggressive struggle while remaining nonviolent, and asked that the more radical opposition resist taking up arms, for “it would be as foolish as attempting to fight a pride of angry lions” (Mandela 271). The ANC grew more militant with the establishment of the Youth League (Spear of the Nation) in the 1940s, in which Nelson Mandela was a leader. For instance the Program of Action, introduced around 1950: called for the pursuit of political rights through the use of boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience, and noncooperation…This was a depart from the days of decorous protests, and many of the old stalwarts of the ANC were to fade away in this new era of 5 greater militancy… We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path (Mandela 115). While still discouraging armed opposition, the ANC had many loyal followers. The White government encouraged tribalism, rather than Pan-Africanism, and this hindered complete unity among anti-apartheid activists. In an attempt to decrease the threat of growing unity and feelings of Pan-Africanism, the White government continued to use a ‘divide and conquer’ approach. Tribal Homelands were formed under the Group Areas Act of 1950 (Thompson 194). This law forced all urban Africans to live in government area determined by their ethnic group origin. Despite legislation, Africans of all tribes found common ground through song and used music as a way to surmount the apartheid policies aimed at fragmenting their oppositional front. This can be seen in a song with a line that translates to: Let’s unite, let’s unite Let’s unite, fellow Africans Down with interfighting Up with Peace (Pollard 122) These lyrics directly address and simultaneously resist the chasm that the apartheid government was trying to create between Black people of different origins in order to prevent a united opposition front. Music clearly emerged as one of the tools with which Africans bonded together to oppose the unjust government of South Africa. Struggle songs such as Senzeni Na and Meadowlands, which describes the struggles of daily life in the Meadowlands Township, both represent the less militant sentiment found in the early reaction to apartheid. These songs have light percussion and relatively melodious tunes, which coincide with the passive resistance that was implemented against White rule. The deceptiveness of Senzeni 6 Na’s smooth and sorrowful melody can be seen when the harsh lyrics are translated to reveal insults targeting White oppression. Senzeni na senzeni na Senzeni na senzeni na Senzeni na senzeni na Senzeni na kulomhlaba? Amabhulu azizinja Amabhulu azizinja Amabhulu azizinja Amabhulu azizinja Kuyisono ‘kubamnyama Kuyisono ‘kubamnyama Kuyisono ‘kubamnyama Kuyisono kulelizwe [What have we done, what have we done? What have we done, what have we done? What have we done, what have we done? What have we done in this country (world)? Boers are dogs Boers are dogs Boers are dogs Boers are dogs It’s a sin to be Black It’s a sin to be Black It’s a sin to be Black It’s a sin in this country (world)] (Pollard 113) The peaceful resistance during the time Senzeni Na was used in protest is apparent because the song lacks the definitive aggression found in the music of later anti-apartheid struggle songs.