EMERGENCE ON SECURITY REGIMES IN EUROPE NATO France NATO FDR SUEZ out 66 1949 in 1955 ‘56 2009 ‘56 CSCE Helsinki 2009 Lisbon 1975 1986 EPC SEA 1999 Process EPC into Helsinki WEU 1970 EU Headline 1955 WEU ESDP 1980s 1992 RIP RIP Maastricht EDC WEU=EU 1954 Signed Fouchet CFSP French 1952 Plan “non” 1961-1962 THE EARLY YEARS • After the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Jean Monnet argued that the answer to the increasing Soviet threat in Europe could be found in pooling the military resources of the European democracies. • The six members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) decided to set up a parallel body, the European Defense Community, complete with parliament, joint-defense commission, council of ministers, and court of justice. • The EDC Treaty was signed in 1952. THE EARLY YEARS • The parliaments of the Benelux countries, West Germany, and Italy ratified the EDC Treaty but the idea came to an abrupt halt in the French Assembly on August 30, 1954. • Several factors contributed to the French rejection. • First was a general opposition to a supranational political community. • Second was the opposition of the French left to the rearming of Germany. • And third was the opposition of the French right to placing French troops under foreign command THE EARLY YEARS • The Single European Act (SEA) further emphasized the necessity to coordinate EPC. It stated: • “that the EPC could include the ‘political and economic aspects of security,’ and that the European Parliament should be closely associated with the EPC.” • Finally, with the end of the Cold War, a more multilateral approach to security and foreign policy in the EU gained momentum. FROM WEU TO ESDP • The Western European Union was set up by the Treaty of Economic, Social, and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defense, which was signed in Paris on October 23, 1954, and came into effect on May 6, 1955. • The Paris agreement was a modification of an earlier agreement, the Brussels Treaty, which was signed by Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom (UK) and laid the foundations of EDC. • The Paris agreement also permitted Italy and West Germany to join the organization. FROM WEU TO ESDP • Between 1955 and 1984, the political achievements of the WEU were facilitating the integration of West Germany into NATO and serving as a link between the EU and the UK until the latter became a member of the Community. • Otherwise, the WEU was not a major player in the Community’s subsequent foreign policy making, and the organization remained inactive until 1984. FROM WEU TO ESDP • Frustrated with the U.S. nuclear missile and Strategic Defense Initiative policies, France started a campaign to reactivate the WEU in the 1980s. • Another important reason for the French initiative was that at the time European Political Cooperation excluded matters relating to defense and security. • On October 26–27, 1984, in Rome, the foreign and defense ministers of the member countries agreed to reactivate the WEU. The Rome Declaration reaffirmed the WEU’s commitment: • to strengthen peace and security; to promote the unity and encourage the progressive integration of Europe; • to cooperate more closely both among member states and with other European organizations; • to make better use of the WEU framework in order to increase cooperation between the members in the field of security and to encourage consensus; and MAASTRICHT AND THE WEU • Under the Maastricht Treaty (1992), the WEU was envisioned as the future military arm of the European Union (EU); it remained institutionally autonomous. • In 1995 the Eurocorps, a joint force drawn from some of the WEU members, became operational. • An additional 18 nations from central Europe, NATO, and/or the EU joined the WEU as associate members, observers, or associate partners in the 1990s. • In 1999 the EU voted to absorb all the functions of the WEU in preparation for making the EU a defensive and peacekeeping military organization as well as a social and economic one. THE MAASTRICHT TREATY AND CFSP • Establishes common foreign and security policy as the second main pillar of the EU and makes the Western European Union (WEU) an integral part of the development of the EU while maintaining this institution’s autonomy and giving it the task of defining and implementing defense and security issues. THE WEU “PETERSBERG” DECLARATION IN BONN ON JUNE 19, 1992 • This declaration emphasized the importance of the CSCE (OSCE) in promoting peace and stability in Europe and called for strengthening the CSCE’s capabilities in conflict prevention, crisis management, and peaceful settlement of international disputes. • It specified that the WEU would support implementation of conflict prevention and crisis management measures, including peacekeeping operations of the CSCE or the UN Security Council. • Furthermore, the declaration reaffirmed the members’ commitment to strengthen the European leg of the Atlantic Alliance and to invite other EU members and European members of NATO to join the WEU. WEU- MEMBERSHIPS (Modified Brussels Associate Members Observers Associate Partners Treaty 1954) (Rome 1992) (Rome 1992) (Kirchberg 1994) Belgium Czech Republic Austria (1995) Bulgaria France Hungary Denmark Estonia Germany Iceland Finland Latvia Greece (1995) Norway Ireland Lithuania Italy Poland Sweden (1995) Romania Luxembourg Turkey Slovakia Netherlands Slovenia (1996) Portugal (1990) Spain (1990) TREATY ON EUROPEAN UNION ARTICLE 26 "The Secretary-General of the Council, High Representative for the common foreign and security policy, shall assist the Council in matters coming within the scope of the common foreign and security policy, in particular through contributing to the formulation, preparation and implementation of policy decisions, and, when appropriate and acting on behalf of the Council at the request of the Presidency, through conducting political dialogue with third parties." • Javier Solana was the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). THE AMSTERDAM TREATY AND CFSP • The Amsterdam Treaty enhanced provisions of CFSP to pave the way for a common defense policy via: • A new process for CFSP cooperation was introduced as “common strategies.” • Once the EU foreign ministers make a proposal to the European Council, the Council will then adopt it as a common strategy. • formalized and clarified the practice of agreement through “constructive abstention.” While all CFSP decisions still require unanimity, abstention by members no longer means a veto. • the treaty formally integrated defense policy cooperation into the EU. • Finally, the treaty granted the right to remain neutral, which was demanded by Sweden, Austria, Finland, and Ireland. • Specifically, Article 17 of the Treaty of Amsterdam states that the CFSP covers all questions relating to the security of the Union, including the progressive framing of a common defense policy, which might lead to a common defense, should the European Council so decide. • This article introduced a transfer of competences from the WEU to the EU, and almost all of the Petersberg tasks have been incorporated into new structures of the Union, as have subsidiary bodies of the WEU such as the Satellite Centre and the Institute for Security Studies, which have been operational since January 2002. THE NICE TREATY • Makes changes to the CFSP, mainly in the following areas: ! • Enhanced cooperation, which will be possible for the implementation of a joint action or common position if it relates to issues that do not have any military or defense implications. If no Member States object or call for a unanimous decision in the European Council (the 'emergency brake'), enhanced cooperation is adopted in the Council by a qualified majority, with a threshold of only eight Member States. ! • The Political and Security Committee will be authorized by the European Council to take appropriate decisions to exercise political control and strategic direction of a crisis management operation. This gives it an even more prominent role in the ESDP. NATO AND CSDP • NATO (f. 4 April 1949): Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Rep., Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States. NATO AND ESDP •A leaked version of the Pentagon's 1994-1999 Defense Planning Guidance report advises that the United States "must seek to prevent the emergence of European-only security arrangements which would undermine NATO ... Therefore, it is of fundamental importance to preserve NATO as the primary instrument of Western defense and security, as well as the channel for U.S. influence and participation in European security affairs." •Hostility between French and American Goals since at least the Reagan administration. •Intensified during Bush I and Bush II. •The Bush administration policy in the build-up to the second Iraq war greatly distressed both NATO and CSDP. Rumsfeld’s “Old Europe” quote and strategy greatly antagonized members and undermined European solidarity. Seemed unnecessarily intentional as NATO reorientation was already underway. • In 1998, the EU launched a new debate on European defense and security. At Saint-Malo, in December 1998, France and the UK adopted a joint declaration: • The European Union needs to be in a position to play its full role on the international stage • the EU must have the capacity for autonomous action in order to