Towards Democratic Policing in Taiwan: A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Police Education on Human Rights, Moral Reasoning, Prejudice and Receptivity to Evidence- Based Policing Keng-Hui Lin Department of Security and Crime Science University College London This Thesis is submitted in support of a PhD in Security and Crime Science August 2020 1 Declaration of Authorship ‘I, Keng-hui Lin, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis.' Signed: Date: 2 Towards Democratic Policing in Taiwan and Police Education Abstract This thesis investigates how police socialisation, and in particular police education, influences police recruits in terms of several democratic policing indicators (DPI) and their receptivity to evidence-based policing (EBP). The DPI used here are derived from prior research and theory, namely: 1) human rights endorsement, 2) advanced moral reasoning, and 3) lack of prejudice. To observe temporal changes in DPI and receptivity to EBP, this thesis applies a multiple-group longitudinal design that includes both police recruits and university undergraduates (as a comparison group). This sample takes advantage of the centralised police education system in Taiwan – Central Police University (CPU) – and the fact that there is only one criminology department in Taiwan – National Chung Cheng University (NCCU). The sample used here comprises five cohorts: 1) police officers on in-service programs, 2) graduate recruits in police academy training, 3) new and 4) senior recruits on cadre programs at CPU, and 5) first-year undergraduates at NCCU. To determine the potential influence of different stages of police socialisation, this thesis conceptualises police socialisation from three perspectives: 1) recruit predisposition, 2) police education and training and 3) police work/culture. All participating cohorts are surveyed on three occasions (primarily September 2016, 2017 and 2018) in order to test the applicability of these perspectives. The sample covers the whole population of each cohort and was subject to little attrition across the three periods of data collection. Five research instruments were used here: 1) Attitude towards Human Rights (ATHR), 2) Defining Issues Test–2 (DIT-2), 3) Right- Wing Authoritarianism (RWA), 4) Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and 5) Evidence-based Policing Receptivity scale (EBPR). This thesis has five principal findings. First, the conceptualisation of democratic policing used here passes the construct validity test, implying that the concept is sufficiently captured by the three indicators used in this study: adherence to human rights, advanced moral reasoning and the absence of prejudice. Second, among the 3 three stages of police socialisation considered here, police education and training is found to exert a negative influence on all outcome variables. There is little effect observed in both the predisposition and police work/culture perspectives on these outcome variables. Third, graduate recruits are shown to exhibit no reliable differences on all outcome variables when compared to police recruits without degrees. Fourth, sworn officers do not change significantly during in-service education. Finally, the observed negative influence of police education and training is mainly attributed to the paramilitary management at CPU. The implications of the findings for police practice, police education and further research are discussed. 4 Impact Statement The research reported in this thesis is expected to impact three broad areas: academia, public policy and police education. In relation to academia, this research is novel in using longitudinal data to both conceptualise and model – using structural equation modelling (SEM) – ‘democratic’ policing in the context of Taiwan. This conceptualisation and modelling illustrate how the sub-dimensions of democratic policing as defined here – comprising of human rights endorsement, advanced moral reasoning and lack of prejudice – correlate with each other, facilitating future research to explore police legitimacy-related issues. Democratic policing should be evidence-based. In addition to focussing on the concept of democratic policing, this thesis also examines Taiwanese police officers’ receptivity to research evidence. In doing so, this research reports an original attempt to determine the latent structure underlying evidence-based policing (EBP) receptivity using factor analysis. This analysis extends previous research and can usefully contribute to the development of instruments designed to better measure police receptivity to research evidence. It is also the first study to assess receptivity to EBP in an Asian setting. The second dimension of impact expected to follow from this research concerns public policy. Using a robust longitudinal research design, the results of this study show that the current model of police education in Taiwan - compared to recruit predisposition and police work/culture - is the most influential factor in shaping police cadets’ human right endorsement, moral reasoning, levels of prejudice and EBP receptivity, as measured herein. The role of police education in facilitating democratic policing remains a highly topical subject, especially in Asian settings. The concern has been raised that the prevailing model of police education in the US, in which police academy training and collegiate programs operate in parallel, is insufficient to adequately prepare police officers for the complexity of modern day policing. This research adopts a robust research design to empirically examine the prevailing model of police education and compares it with the professional model that combines liberal arts, professional modules and vocational training. This research shows the strengths and weaknesses of different police education models and 5 suggests an alternative model of police education in Taiwan that is more conducive to embedding and developing the principles of democratic policing. The third beneficiary of this research concerns the long-standing issue in Taiwanese police education. This issue is related to the sequence of recruitment that among the three steps of training, qualification and employment, whether training or qualification should be the first step. This research shows that there is little difference in the propensity for democratic policing and EBP receptivity between recruits who are trained first and those who are qualified first. That is, the sequence of recruitment does not make a difference in desirable attributes of recruits, but the contents of police education do. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS IMPACT STATEMENT ........................................................................ 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................. 12 LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................. 13 LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................ 15 LIST OF ACRONYMS ....................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................... 18 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 18 A dual framework of fairness and effectiveness ................................................................................ 19 An absent link between democratic policing and police socialisation ............................................. 20 Police education that contributes to democratic policing .................................................................. 22 Why Taiwan? ........................................................................................................................................... 23 1.2 THESIS CHAPTER MAPPING .......................................................................... 24 CHAPTER 2 DEMOCRATIC POLICING ............................................ 28 2.1 DEMOCRATIC POLICING: ORIGINS, DEFINITION AND DEVELOPMENT ................. 28 George Berkley ....................................................................................................................................... 29 Hsi-Huey Liang ........................................................................................................................................ 31 Trevor Jones, Tim Newburn and David J. Smith ............................................................................... 32 United Nations civilian police (UNCIVPOL) and Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) ....................................................................................................................................... 33 David Bayley ............................................................................................................................................ 35 David Sklansky ........................................................................................................................................ 36 Otwin Marenin ......................................................................................................................................... 37 Peter Manning ......................................................................................................................................... 38 2.2 IMPLICATION FOR DEMOCRATIC POLICING ...................................................