A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details Globalisation of Plea Bargaining and its Emergence in Nigeria: A Critical Analysis of Practice, Problems, and Priorities in Criminal Justice Reform. Submitted in fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Candidate: Abubakar Bukar Kagu School of Law, University of Sussex. 2016 1 Acknowledgement First, I give gratitude to Allah for seeing me through this onerous but worthy process of learning and development. My appreciation also goes to my Supervisors Prof. Richard K. Vogler and Dr. Mark Walters whose support, guidance and humility cannot be quantified. I also give thanks to my family and friends. I wish I could mention their names individually but for the little space to do so. Yet, I must mention my Dad. Alhaji Abubakar Kagu Dapchi, My mum Hajja Innah Mai Bukar Machinama, My siblings Kolo, Fati, Hauwa, Yakura, Umar, Ummiyo and Bintu as great part of this success. To HRH Bashir Bukar Albishir and all the members of my family, I want to say you are more than just amazing. For all the others I was unable to mention, each one of you means a lot me. If I am to ever write my biography, it will be incomplete without them. I also thank His Excellency Alhaji Ibrahim Gaidam the Executive Governor of Yobe State who, through his office offered me and many others the scholarship to further our studies. I also thank the Attorney General of the State, Barr. Ahmed Mustafa Goniri for being at the forefront of my sponsorship, along with the Secretary of the State Government Baba Mallam Wali for his fatherly support. Who are the patient heroes here? Well, it was my wife Saadatu Matori and my two Kids Hauwa and Baba Amir who, by my side, brazed the winter and the spring of the beautiful city of Brighton as we transition through this phase of life from 2012 to 2016. I love you all. A B Kagu ‘If a man ere to know the end of today’s business, ere it comes” Shakespeare 2 Dedication This is for my mother. A promise made; a promise kept. To Daddy, I want to say again that you were my first hero, and still are. 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgment ................................................................... Error! 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Dedication ........................................................................................................................ 3 Declaration ...................................................................................................................... 8 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter One ................................................................................................................... 11 General Introduction ...................................................................................................... 11 1.0 Background .............................................................................................................. 11 1.1 Purpose .................................................................................................................... 17 1.2 Research questions ................................................................................................... 18 1.3 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 19 1.3.1 Data analysis ................................................................................................................................ 22 1.4 Structure of the thesis ............................................................................................... 22 1.5 Content of chapters .................................................................................................. 24 Part A ............................................................................................................................. 26 Chapter Two ................................................................................................................... 27 Transitions and reforms: a global view on criminal justice and the institution of plea bargaining .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.0 Introduction ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.1 Criminal justice in transition: a new paradigm of changes and reform ...................... 31 2.2 The history of plea bargaining: a global view ....................................................... 40 2.3 Types of Plea Bargaining ...................................................................................... 47 2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 49 Chapter Three ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. Theoretical framework ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.0 Introduction ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 3.1 Utilitarian theory ...................................................................................................... 53 3.2 Decision Theory ........................................................................................................ 59 3.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 66 Chapter Four .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4 Practical models of plea bargaining: a comparative perspective ........... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.0 Introduction ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.1 The United States of America .............................................................................. 70 4.2 England and Wales .............................................................................................. 74 4.3 Germany ............................................................................................................. 79 4.4 Italy .................................................................................................................... 85 4.5 Russia ................................................................................................................. 89 4.6 China................................................................................................................... 92 4.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 94 Chapter Five ........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Critique of plea bargaining ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.0 Introduction ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.1 Bureaucratization of criminal justice procedure ................................................... 98 5.2 Elements of threat, coercion and undue influence ............................................. 103 5.3 Inconsistent sentencing ..................................................................................... 110 5.4 Lack of transparency and public participation .................................................... 115 5.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 117 Part B ........................................................................................................................... 119 Chapter Six ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. The Emergence of Plea Bargaining in Nigeria........................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 6.0 Introduction ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 6.1 Background to the emergence of plea bargaining in Nigeria ............................... 122 (a). Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC). ............................................................ 125 (b). Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) ........................................................... 126 6.2 Primary causes of plea bargaining in Nigeria. .......................................................... 128 6.2.1 Contingencies of the traditional method of trial ................................................................... 128 6.2.2 International influence .......................................................................................................... 131 6.3 Transition from trial to plea bargaining .............................................................. 134 6.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................