SMALLHOLDER KNOWLEDGE, SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE CHANGE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SOUTHWEST UGANDA By CARY S. FARLEY A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1996 LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA Copyright 1996 by Cary S. Farley ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by a Fulbright Fixed-Sum Grant, which was coordinated by the USIS in Kampala, Uganda. Additional field research funds were provided by The Rockefeller Foundation and CARE/Uganda, while technical and logistical support was also provided by the International Center of Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources (MUIENR) and CARE/Uganda. CIAT/Uganda played a particularly supportive role throughout the duration of the research project. A great number of people have encouraged me in this effort. Most importantly, I would like to thank parents and brothers who have provided encouragement both spoken and tacit these many years. I also owe a great deal to my fellow researchers in Uganda who provided moral support, critical analysis and encouragement: David Edmunds, Paula Davis, Jake Reynolds, Patrica Spittal and Joy Tukahirwa. Many others cannot be properly acknowledged, nor can words adequately express the debt that I owe. I would like to thank my committee members for their guidance, and for providing me with the latitude necessary to conduct and complete this work according to my own manner: my chair, Dr. Edward Malecki, my co-chair Dr. Abe Goldman, Dr. Joann Mossa, Dr. Peter Nkedi-Kizza (Soil and Water Science) and Dr. Art Hansen (Anthropology). A number of other individuals at the University of Florida supported my efforts on the technical front: Laura Hoffman helped create many of the tables, Ryan iii Poehling produced the majority of the maps and graphics, and Ken Mease assisted with the analysis of the survey data. In Uganda, I owe a debt of gratitude to a vast and diverse number of people. They include Dr. Eldad Tukahirwa, Dr. Derek Pomeroy and the secretarial staff at MUIENR; Dr. Mark Marquardt and Dr. Emmanuel Nabuguzi at MISR; Dr. Charles Wortmann, Dr. Louise Sperling, Martin Fischler, Dr. Soniia David and the staff at CIAT; Kim Lindblade, Philip Franks and the staff at CARE, and Fred Kyayi at the Makerere University Institute of Applied Economics and Statistics. Finally, in Kabale and Kisoro Districts, I am deeply indebted to my field assistants Zinne and Placidia, and of course, to the smallholders throughout the highland region who answered my many questions, and allowed my to follow them over hill and dale. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES xi ABSTRACT xii CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Overview 1 Problem Statement 5 Research Objectives 9 Presentation of Research 14 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 16 Population Growth 16 Agricultural Intensification 19 Cultural Ecology 26 Political Ecology 30 The Colonial State and Land Management 36 Recent Approaches to Land Management 38 Land Degradation and Soil Science 42 Smallholder Knowledge 47 Summary 55 3 UGANDA AND THE SOUTHWESTERN HIGHLANDS 58 Population Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa 58 Demographic Trends in Uganda 59 Population Growth 59 Infectious Diseases 60 v 1 1 Refugees 64 Agricultural Production in Uganda 67 Agricultural-Based Economy 68 Land-Supporting Capacity 71 Purchased Agricultural Inputs 75 The Highlands of Southwest Uganda 78 Natural Vegetation 79 Landforms, Geology and Soils 79 Climate 83 Agricultural Production Systems 87 Cropping System 87 Land Tenure and Land Fragmentation 90 Labor 92 Demographic Trends 95 Summary 98 4 RESEARCH SITES AND METHODS 101 Research Sites 101 Research Methods 108 Preliminary Research 108 Field Research 1Q8 Participant Observation 109 Unstructured and semi-structured individual interviews 109 Semi-structured group interviews 1 10 Questionnaire Survey 1 1 Soil Classification Survey 1 4 5 COLONIAL INTERVENTIONS IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SOUTHWEST UGANDA 117 Introduction 117 Labor Reserves 118 Agricultural Cooperatives 121 Resettlement Schemes 122 Land Management Initiatives 124 Soil and Water Conservation Programs 124 Smallholder Soil Knowledge and Land Management 128 Colonial Management Approaches 129 Summary 132 6 SMALLHOLDER SOIL KNOWLEDGE 135 Scientific Soil Classification Systems 135 vi Smallholder Soil Classification Systems 136 Background 136 Results 137 Discussion 141 Soil Catenas 142 Background 142 Results 142 Discussion 143 Comparison of Local and Conventional Soil Classification Systems 145 Background 145 Results 146 Discussion 151 Smallholder Perceptions of the Fertility and Erodibility of Local Soils 154 Summary 158 7 SOIL DEGRADATION AND SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 162 Introduction 162 Soil Degradation 163 Popular Perceptions of Soil and Land Degradation 165 Scientific Evidence of Soil and Land Degradation 168 Smallholder Perceptions of Soil Degradation 171 Smallholder Soil Resource Management Practices 175 Soil and Water Conservation By-laws 175 Input Utilization 184 Agricultural and Resource Management Concerns 189 Summary 193 8 LAND USE AND AGRICULTURAL CHANGE 197 Environmental Change in Southwest Uganda 197 Land Use Change 198 Recent Vegetational Change 199 Land Fragmentation 203 Fallow Change and Intercropping 212 Weed Management 216 Cropping System Changes 218 Summary 222 9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 226 vii Summary 226 Smallholder Soil Knowledge 228 Soil Degradation and Soil Resource Management 229 Land Use Change and Smallholder Adaptations 231 Colonial influences 232 Change and adaptation 233 Conclusions 234 Theoretical Implications 234 Applied Implications 236 Methodological Implications 239 Recommendations for Further Research 240 APPENDICES 242 A MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL (MM) FOR KABALE, UGANDA - 1918 TO 1993 242 B ANNUAL RAINFALL (MM) FOR KABALE, UGANDA - 1918 TO 1993 243 C QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY 244 D KABALE DISTRICT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION BY-LAWS 257 E KISORO DISTRICT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION BY-LAWS 260 F FERTILITY CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 264 G CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TOP SOIL SAMPLES 267 BIBLIOGRAPHY 272 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 332 viii LIST OF TABLES Table page 3.1 Refugees and Asylum Seekers Need of Protection and/or Assistance 65 3.2 Land Use Trends in Uganda 69 3.3 Uganda's Population - Supporting Capacity (People/Hectare, Year 2000) 73 3.4 Fertilizer Consumption in East Africa in Metric Tons 77 3.5 Population Growth in Southwest Uganda, 1969-1991 96 3.6 Characteristics of Rural Households in Kabale and Kisoro Districts 97 4. 1 Characterization of Research Sites 105 4.2 Survey Sample Framework 112 5.1 Soil and Water Conservation Measures 125 6. 1 Smallholder Soil Classification, Kicumbi Parish, Kabale District 138 6.2 Smallholder Soil Classification Nyarurambi Parish, Kabale District 139 6.3 Smallholder Soil Classification, Muramba Parish, Kisoro District 140 6.4 Comparison of Soil Classification Systems 147 6.5 Cross-Site Comparison of Soil Classification Systems 150 6.6 General Soil Fertility Ranking 155 ix 6.7 General Soil Erodibility Ranking 155 7.1 Smallholder Perceptions of Soil Degradation 173 7.2 Smallholder Perceptions and Use of the Soil and Water Conservation By-laws 177 7.3 Smallholder Use of Agricultural Inputs 185 7.4 Smallholder Agricultural and Land Management Concerns 190 8. 1 Tree Planting Practices 201 8.2 Renting, Leasing or Borrowing of Plots 205 8.3 Fragmented Landholdings 207 8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Plots 210 8.5 Smallholder Fallow Practices 214 8.6 Cropping Profile Changes 219 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1.1 Uganda 6 1.2 Kigezi District 7 1.3 Kabale District 10 1.4 Kisoro District 11 3.1 Kabale Landscape 81 3.2 Kisoro Landscape 84 4. 1 Kicumbi Parish 103 4.2 Nyarurambi Parish 105 4.3 Muramba Parish 107 6.1 General Soil Catena for Kicumbi Parish, Kabale District 144 xi Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy SMALLHOLDER KNOWLEDGE, SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LAND USE CHANGE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SOUTHWEST UGANDA By Cary Farley August, 1996 Chairman: Dr. Edward Malecki Major Department: Geography In the highlands of southwest Uganda, the Districts of Kabale and Kisoro are characterized by extensive deforestation, intensive cultivation, land fragmentation and 2 one of the highest rural population densities in the country (>250 people/km ). Concern over soil erosion and declining soil fertility in the region was first expressed by the British colonial government in the 1920's. Despite the continued widespread assumptions of land degradation in the highlands, the frequency, magnitude and scale of soil-related problems, as well as their causes and the ability of smallholders to manage for them have not been well understood. For the purposes of this investigation, three sites of differing geology, soils and population densities were selected in Kabale and Kisoro Districts for an in-depth study of smallholder soil knowledge and land management practices. xii The investigation revealed that contrary to popular opinion, smallholders possessed a well-developed knowledge of soils and an array of land management practices for a diversity of environments. Additionally, cropping profiles, soil resource management and land use have also changed in response to an array of influences, including population growth, coercive soil and water