Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-82205-3 - Measuring the Natural Environment, Second Edition Ian Strangeways Index More information Index access tubes (soil moisture), 186, 191 Boyle, Robert, 93 accuracy, 4 bright band (weather radar), 171 actinograph, bimetallic, 18 brightness temperature (remote sensing), 484 active microwave (remote sensing), 481 British Antarctic Survey, 454 aircraft measurements of upper atmosphere, 402 bubble method (water level), 235 by civil aircraft, 403 buckets (for SST), 426 by research flights, 402 buoys, moored, as instrument platforms, 430, 435 algorithms (remote sensing), 484 drifting buoys, 436 Alter shield, 141 analogue to digital conversion, 276 calibration, basics, 5 anemometer, cup, 76 barometric pressure, 99 drag force, 83 clouds, 352, 355, 357 pressure, 81 evaporation, 124 propeller, 78 ground truth, 500 sonic, 87 humidity, 67 thermal, 85 lightning, 372, 376 vortex, 84 radiometers (satellite), 480 aneroid barometer, 103 radiosondes, 388, 390, 392, 401 areal estimates from point measurements (rainfall), soil moisture, 188, 194, 202 145 temperature, 33 Argo profiler floats (ocean), 439–446 visibility, 328 Argos satellite, 315 water quality, 258, 265, 269 aspirated screens, 57 Campbell, John, 2 atmometers (evaporimeters), 131 Campbell–Stokes sunshine recorder, 14 atmosphere’s effect on radiation passage, 473 capacitance probe (soil moisture), 190–197 atmospheric composition, 503–518 capacitive humidity sensor, 62 automatic weather stations (AWSs), 126 carbon dioxide, 120, 504 casing and screens (boreholes), 217 ball lightning, 366 Castelli, Benedetto (rain measurement), 2, 134 balloons for upper atmosphere measurement, 397 catchments (evaporation estimates), 114 barograph, 105 cathode ray direction finder (lightning), 370 barometer, mercury, 95 CCTV (for cloud, and other, remote observations), aneroid, 103 351 electronic, 106 Celsius, Anders, 32 barometric pressure, 91–112 Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (formerly bathythermograph, 439 Institute of Hydrology), 123 Beaufort, Admiral Sir Francis (wind scale), 76 Christin, Pierre, 32 Ben Nevis weather station, 454 cirrus clouds, 348 Bernoulli, Daniel, equation, 81 cloud height measurement, manual with balloon, biochemical oxygen demand, 266 351 Bouguer–Lambert law (visibility), 322 automatic by searchlight, 353 Bourdon gauge, 103 by laser, 355 Bowen ratio, 118 manual by searchlight, 352 529 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-82205-3 - Measuring the Natural Environment, Second Edition Ian Strangeways Index More information 530 Index cloud observations by CCTV, 357 evaporation pan, 129 from satellite, 358 from plants, 117 cloud types, 344–351 lysimeter, 116 clouds, 343–360 Penman, 125 cold regions, 452–468 communication links (telemetry), 290–319 Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 32 contact gauges (water level), 227 field capacity (soil moisture), 179 Copernicus, 93 film cameras (remote sensing), 473 Coriolis force, 71 FitzRoy, Vice-Admiral Robert, 2, 422 costs, 9 floats (water level), 228 cumulonimbus (thunder) cloud, 362 flow gauging (rivers), 242 cumulus clouds, 346 flumes, 246 cup anemometer, 76 Fortin barometer, 96 current meters, mechanical propeller, 239 Franklin, Benjamin, 361 electromagnetic gauge, 241 frequency switch keying (telemetry), 290 ultrasonic gauge, 240 current observations (ocean), 429 Galileo, 2, 91 gas analysers, 55 Dalton, John, 129 gauging boards (staff gauges), 223 Darwin, Charles, 2, 421 Gay-Lussac (balloons), 383 data collection platforms, 301 geostationary orbits, 298 data logging, 272–287 Glaisher, 383 construction, 272 Global Positioning System (GPS), 401, 430 operation, 283–285 global telecommunications system, 306 data, origins, 1 GMS satellite, 312 quality, 8 GOES satellite, 310 Davey, Sir Humphry, 256 GOMS satellite, 313 definition of terms, 4 gravimetric method (soil moisture), 182 de-icing instruments, 454 Gray code, 278 Descartes, René,91 greenhouse gases, measuring concentration, 504 dew-cell, 65 ground temperature, 47–51 dew-point hygrometer, 65 ground truth, 500, 522 digital terms, 276 groundwater, 181 dilution gauging, 246 accessing by drilling, 211–221 Dines, W. H.; wind sensors, 82 gypsum blocks, 207 raingauges, 150 discharge (rivers), 242 hair hygrometer, 59 Dobson, D., 135 hygrograph, 60 downloading data (from loggers), 285 Hameldon hill (weather radar), 170 drag force anemometer, 83 Heberden, William (rainfall), 136 drifting buoys, 436 HF radio links, 294 drilling methods (for boreholes), 211–221 Hooke, Robert, 54, 96, 101 dropwindsonde, 402 Howard, Luke, 344 dry bulk density (soil moisture), 183 Huddleston (turf wall), 141 dry deposition from atmosphere, 510 hull temperature, 427 Dutch weather glass, 93 humidity, 53–68 hygrometry, 55 early instruments, 1 hysteresis, 5 eddy correlation, 119 effective height (of wind sensors), 72 ice accretion, 453, 467 electromagnetic flow gauging, 251 icebergs, 458 electromagnetic spectrum, 470 image dissemination (satellites), 482 engine-room intake (for SST), 427 inertial dissipation (over ocean), 447 errors, 4 infrared, 12, 19, 26, 66, 121, 385, 388, 470, 504, EUMETSAT, 301, 310 506 European Space Agency, 301 Inmarsat, 313 evaporation, 113–133 insolation, 12 evaporation measurement by instruments, old vs new, 3 Bowen ratio, 118 interception loss, 117 catchment measurements, 114 interfacing sensors to loggers, 273 eddy correlation, 119 International Temperature Scale, 33 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-82205-3 - Measuring the Natural Environment, Second Edition Ian Strangeways Index More information Index 531 ion-exchange humidity sensor, 63 NASA, 469, 444, 493, 500, 522 Iridium satellites, 318 natural siphon raingauge (and Hellmann gauge), 150 Jason satellite altimetry, 444 nebule (visibility unit), 328 Nernst equation, 260 Karman vortex street (wind measurement), net pyrradiometers, 26 84 net radiation, 14 Kelvin degrees, 33 neutron probe (soil moisture), 185–190 Kelvin, Baron of Largs, 33 Nimrod and Gandolf (rainfall), 173 Kew pattern barometer, 96 Nipher shield, 140 Koschmieder (pit gauge), 142, 320 number systems (logging and computing), 277 laminar boundary layer, 31 latent heat flux, 113, 118 ocean-atmosphere fluxes, 446 Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 256 oceans, 421–451 light sensitive diodes, 22 Omega (navigation), 401 lightning detection by optical raingauges, 158 arrival time difference of sferics, 375 Orbcomm satellites, 318 direction of arrival of sferics, 369 orbits (of satellites), 298 local detection, 368 oxygen, 13, 489, 416 radar, 378 ozone, 511–515 satellite, 379 time of arrival of sferics, 374 particulate matter (in atmosphere), 511 lightning, 361–382 passive remote sensing, 472 lightning, charge/discharge processes, 363 peak gauges (rivers), 225 linearity, 4 Penman, evaporation estimates, 125 line-of-sight radio propagation, 291 pH, 256 Linnaeus, 32 photography (in remote sensing), 473 liquid in glass thermometers, 33 photometers, 18, 24 loggers, 272–287 photosynthetically active radiation, 18, 24 operation, 283, 285 pit exposure of raingauges, 142 structure, 272 pit gauges, 143 loop antenna (lightning direction), 369 Pitot tube, 81, 238 Loran (navigation), 401 platinum resistance thermometers, 40 lysimeter, evaporation, 116 polar orbits, 298 snowmelt, 168 polling field stations (telemetry), 290 polyelectrolyte sensor (humidity), 63 maintenance, basics, 6 porous pot (soil) tensiometers, 207 Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 422 potential evaporation, 125 mean temperature, 36 potentiometer sensors, 74, 231 memory, for loggers, 280 power supplies for logging and telemetry, 284 magnetic tape, 280 precipitation, 134–177 RAM, 282 precipitation detectors, 161 mercury barometers, 95 present weather sensor, 339 met. enclosures, 127 pressure anemometer, 81 meteorburst communication, 295 pressure at aeronautical stations, 109 meteorological optical range, 321 pressure sensors, barometric, 107 Meteosat satellite, 301 water level, 235 microelectronics, 2 Priestley and Taylor (evaporation), 128 microwave radiometers (for upper air Priestley, Joseph, 256 soundings), 416 primary data user station, 308 Middleton, W. E., Knowles, 92, 324 programming of data loggers and telemetry Milankovitch, 422 systems, 283, 304 millibar (hectopascal), 95 propeller anemometer, 78 modems, 289 protection from environment (loggers), 286 moisture dry-weight fraction (soil), 181 psychometric coefficient/constant, 56 moisture volume fraction (soil), 181 psychrometer, 55 momentum fluxes (over ocean), 446 pyranograph, 18 moored buoys, 430 pyranometers, thermal, 19 multiplexing (in logging), 276 photodiode, 22 multispectral scanners (remote sensing), 477 pyrheliometers (direct solar radiation), 13, 15 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-82205-3 - Measuring the Natural Environment, Second Edition Ian Strangeways Index More information 532 Index quality (water), 254–269 run of wind, 79 quantitative measurements (in remote sensing), 483 Runway Visual Range, 429 radar for upper atmosphere studies, 409 salinity, 262 radar rain measurements, 169 satellite images and soundings, interpreting them, 483 radiation, 11–30 satellite orbits, 298, 469 radiation absorption sensors, water vapour and satellite telemetry links, 297–319 carbon dioxide, 66, 504 saturation vapour pressure, 54 radio-acoustic sounders (RASS), 409 scaling up (remote sensing), 500 radio links (UHF and VHF), 291 scanning radiometers (remote sensing), 476 radiometers (remote sensing), 474 screens, temperature, 43–47