The Science Behind Green and Conventional Burial In Lay Terms Overview and Disclaimers The Green Burial Council is frequently asked about and its effects on public health is largely based on the science of burial, specifically the environmental the supposition that historical mass events such as or health effects of burial without a vault, typhoid or cholera outbreaks in the 1800’s were conventional hardwood or metal casket, or connected to cemeteries. These reports have very embalming. Questions range from repercussions to little to offer today in relation to direct earth burial. benefits of natural burial for both the living and the dead, but are about the future of the planet. This article is intended to act as a general collection of facts, observations, and commonly asked The majority of available research about burial to questions. It is not intended to take the place of date relates to concerns about mass casualty, scientific study. It is our hope that readers will find epidemic, and infectious disease disposal, primarily it informative and useful as a stepping stone to in livestock. Data regarding individual human burial further research and inquiry. Areas of Inquiry Frequently asked questions around green burial fall into several distinct areas that will be addressed here: § What happens during the average decomposition processes? § What public health and safety risks exist? § What role does embalming serve? § How does burial density affect outcome? § What is the potential for contamination of ground water, including aquifers? § What is the role of soil in filtering potential contaminants? § What are the pollution effects of conventional burial practices under typical circumstances? § Are nuisance pests a problem, and if so, how they can be controlled? Decomposition The body is made up of 64% water, 20% protein, Decomposition of the body begins shortly after 10% fat, 5% mineral and 1% carbohydrate. If the death, when cells die and begin the process of body is not cooled or embalmed, the proteins begin breaking down. It takes close to 72 hours for micro- releasing gasses such as purscine, cadaverine, organisms to begin putrefaction within the body. hydrogen sulfide, methane, ammonia, nitrate, Keeping the body clean and cool helps to preserve sulfide (transformed to sulphurous acid) and the body in the short term (up to 8 days). organic acids. Carbohydrates decompose to sugars, a process aided by bacteria and fungi. Copyright © 2016, Green Burial Council, www.greenburialcouncil.org 1 Decomposing fat produces adipocere, which is Pseudomonas aeruginosa, break down the dead composed of saturated fatty acids. Micro-organisms intestinal cells, and bacteria such as coliforms and naturally present in the intestine, such as fecal clostridia begin traveling to other body parts. coliform, E. coli, fecal streptococci, and Organs that house digestive enZymes such as the Decomposition time after interment primarily pancreas and liver, for instance, release those depends on whether or not the body is confined in enZymes and begin to self-digest. a coffin, whether or not there is water present and how much, the type of soil, and how the body was Depending on the cause of death, general condition handled during burial. of the body, body siZe, disease processes, medications, analgesic use, storage procedures, and Much of the available data regarding decomposition many other environmental factors, decomposition timing is based on above ground observation may be accelerated or retarded. studies, not scientific assessments of bodies buried underground. A best guess is that open-air Copyright © 2016, Green Burial Council, www.greenburialcouncil.org 2 decomposition happens twice as fast as underwater Four Stages of Uninterred Decomposition decomposition, and four times faster than with full § Fresh 1-6 days body burial underground. Cellular autolysis begins, rigor mortis peaks in 24 hours, blood pooling (livor mortis), skin slippage Five Elements that Affect Decomposition 1. An increase of 10° C doubles the rate of § Bloat 7-23 days decomposition Liquefaction, gas releases freons, benzene, 2. Humidity slows decomposition sulfur, carbon tetrachloride 3. Alkalinity speeds decomposition § Active Decay 24-50 days 4. Exposure to oxygen speeds decomposition Tissue decomposition complete, anaerobic 5. Soil type/moisture can change the saponification relationships of the above factors § Dry 51-64 days Skeletal, odor free Public Health & Safety Here’s what some experts say about the risk of infection from dead bodies: § “…concern that dead bodies are infectious can be considered a 'natural' reaction by persons wanting to protect themselves from disease" although "the risk that bodies (that died in a natural disaster) pose for the public is extremely small." —Pan American Health OrganiZation (PAHO) § “Transmission of infection requires the presence of an infectious agent, exposure to that agent, and a susceptible host... The human body is host to many organisms, only some of which are pathogenic. When the body dies, the environment in which pathogens live can no longer sustain them. Microorganisms involved in the decay process (putrefaction) are not pathogenic...” —PAHO § “… transmission of infectious agents from a cadaver to a living person may occur. Infectious hazards for individuals who routinely handle cadavers include tuberculosis, group A streptococcal infection, gastroenteritis, transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease), hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV infection, and possibly meningitis and septicemia (especially meningococcal).” —PAHO § “Historically, epidemics resulting in mass casualties have only occurred from a few diseases, including plague, cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, anthrax, and smallpox…such infections are no more likely to be present in disaster victims than in the general population. Furthermore, although some of these diseases are highly contagious, their causative agents are unable to survive long in the human body following death... It is therefore unlikely that such epidemics will result from contact with a cadaver. Indeed, survivors present a much more important reservoir for disease…” —World Health OrganiZation (WHO) § “Dead or decayed human bodies do not generally create a serious health hazard, unless they are polluting sources of drinking water with fecal matter, or are infected with plague or typhus, in which case they may be infested with the fleas or lice that spread these diseases. In most smaller or less acute emergency situations therefore, families may carry out all the necessary activities following a death...” —WHO, regarding mass burials in emergencies Copyright © 2016, Green Burial Council, www.greenburialcouncil.org 3 § “…the mere presence of a dead body without regard to its embalmed status and one that is not leaking blood from an open wound or perforation, does not pose an increased [health] risk of infectious disease transmission for the person who might handle that body or review it in a private setting. Once a human dies, infectious agents that would be of any concern, including those on the individual’s skin or internal organs, is greatly diminished…there simply is no measurable risk of that body transmitting an infectious disease agent…” —Dr. Michael Osterholm, Center for Infectious Disease Policy and Research (CID) Definition Caused by Examples of disease transmission patterns Infection that results when § Bacteria Blood borne: bacteria, viruses or fungi are § Viruses Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis C virus transmitted with or without § Fungi HIV/AIDS HTLV actual contact; caused by a § Parasites microorganism; some are § Person to person contact Bacterial: contagious or communicable, § Animal to person Cholera Diphtheria others spread by germs § Mother to unborn child E-coli Plague carried in air, water, food, § Bites Salmonella Yellow fever Infectious soil, animals or vectors § Ingesting contaminated food or water Airborne: § Exposure to organisms in the Anthrax environment InfluenZa Tuberculosis Disease that is able to be Viral: transmitted (from person to Ebola Hepatitis A person) by direct contact with Norovirus Rabies an affected individual or the Rotavirus Smallpox individual’s discharges or by Communicable indirect means Parasitic: Giardia Cryptosporidium Typhus Louse-borne relapsing fever Disease that is transmissible Meningitis can be viral, bacterial, or fungal by direct or indirect contact with one who has an CreutZfeldt-Jakob is only transmitted through Contagious infectious disease, with a direct contact with prion proteins in brain matter bodily discharge of such a (low risk) patient, or with an object touched by such a patient The average dead body has been proven to be Embalming without risk to public health when cared for “The use of embalming is of no consequence in properly and in a reasonable amount of time. reducing the risk…” —Dr. Osterholm, when asked However, the fear of health risks associated with about the protective quality of embalming bodies dead bodies under extreme conditions is not with infectious disease. without merit. Ebola and CreutZfeldt-Jakob are two dangerous conditions that disqualify burial as a Embalming is a practice endemic to the US and means of disposition. Canada that is employed to give a body a more “life-like” appearance for public viewing in a funeral establishment, to meet requirements for long Copyright © 2016, Green Burial Council, www.greenburialcouncil.org 4 distance travel by common carrier, or in fluid,”