Alpata A Journal of History University of Florida Volume II, Spring 2005 MANAGING EDITORS Jace Stuckey Graduate Student Brandon Stelck Undergraduate Student EDITORS Chris Sahl Ben Houston Craig Dosher Lela Felter Kerley Ayne Terceria Rob Lever Kate Herbenick Jessica Smith Daniel Vasquez FACULTY ADVISOR Dr. Jack E. Davis SPONSOR University of Florida Department of History Dr. Brian Ward, Chair TYPOGRAPHY AND Charles Flowers PAGE DESIGN PHI ALPHA THETA GAMMA ETA CHAPTER Table of Contents Special Section – Florida Hurricanes of the Twentieth Century Hurricanes: A Phenomenon 5 Jace Stuckey Florida Hurricanes of the 1920s 7 Brandon Stelck Florida Hurricanes of the 1930s 10 Chris Sahl Florida Hurricanes of the 1960s 13 Daniel Vasquez Hurricane Andrew 16 Kate Herbenick A Look at the 2004 Hurricane 18 Season Jessica Smith Bibliography 24 Articles Moment or Process 29 Development in Augustine’s Understanding of Conversion Christopher Ryan Fields Articles (cont.) From “Forbidden-Fruit” and “Ruby 59 Red” The Invention of Grapefruit, 1750-1933 Rob Lever Folklore and the Creation of Indian 89 Womanhood Nancy Tran Dueling with the Law and Defending 111 Honor Benjamin Rush’s and Aaron Burr’s “Interview” with Civil Libel Gary Wickerd Book Reviews Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo 135 Thomas W. Hanchett, Sorting Out the New 138 South City: Race, Class, and Urban Development in Charlotte, 1875-1975 Carol Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic 141 Perspectives Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird 145 Sings Special Topic: Florida Hurricanes of the 20th Century Hurricanes: A Phenomenon Jace Stuckey Although the 2004 hurricane season in Florida has been labeled by many as a “historic year” for devastating storms, intense weather is no new phenomenon for the region. Hurricanes have long been a concern for the region. The term itself is thought to be a derivative of the Spanish word huracán with other Caribbean derivatives huracan, and furacan being common as well. Geologists have determined that hurricanes and major storm surges have been occurring in the Florida region for several thousand years. In addition, native cultures had significant experience with hurricanes long be fore the first Europeans arrived in the late fifteenth century. In fact, to this day, according to hurricane historian Jay Barnes, “some descendants of African slaves in the West Indies still tie knots in the leaves of certain trees and hang them in their homes to ward off hurricanes.”1 Although Columbus’s first voyage to the New World was hurricane free, he did encounter a major gale near Hispaniola in July of 1494. He would later write that “nothing but the service of God and the extension of the monarchy should induce him to expose himself to such dangers.”2 Unfortunately for future explorers, this would be a sign of things to come. Ponce de León was hit by two different hurricanes in the same week. Hernando Cortés lost 70 crewmen when the first ship he sent to Mexico was destroyed a hurricane.3 1 Jay Barnes. Florida’s Hurricane History. (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill & London, 1998). p. 42. 2 Barnes. Florida’s Hurricane History, 40. 3 Barnes, Florida Hurricane History, 41. Volume II, Spring 2005 5 Special Topic: Florida Hurricanes of the 20th Century During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the increased travel between Europe and the Americas the ability to forecast and avoid hurricanes did not improve. Religious festivals and banquets often delayed the departure of trading and cargo ships until the late summer and early fall (August & September), which happened to coincide with the height of hurricane season. The inability to predict and steer clear of major hurricanes has left the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coastline littered with shipwrecks. The discovery of such famous shipwrecks as the Capitana and the Atocha, as well as numerous others, excavations yielding priceless artifacts of gold and silver have inspired treasure hunters from all across the country and earned a portion of the Florida coastline the name ‘the treasure coast.’4 Hurricanes not only hindered ocean travel, but also the development of Spanish, French, and English settlements along the Florida coastline. For example, throughout the eighteenth century the Pensacola settlement suffered considerable damage from successive hurricanes. In 1711, storms devastated the coast from New Orleans to Pensacola. In 1736, hurricanes destroyed Pensacola and drowned nearly all of the inhabitants. In 1766, a storm sank six ships in Pensacola Bay, and in 1772, thirty miles of beach and all but one wharf in Pensacola was ravaged by a storm surge. Finally, in 1778, most of the waterfront and all but one ship in the harbor were destroyed by a major hurricane. Numerous other colonies and settlements in Florida and the Caribbean suffered greatly as well. However, the deadliest year for hurricanes in recorded history came during the American Revolution. In 1780, at least eight major hurricanes (five in October alone) blew across the Caribbean and Florida. The second storm to strike in 4 Barnes, Florida Hurricanes, 46. 6 Alpata: A Journal of History Special Topic: Florida Hurricanes of the 20th Century October lasted for more than a week and claimed more than 22,000 lives. No storm of this magnitude has ever been seen since. Even with significant technological advances, however, the modern era can claim only limited success in protecting coastal settlements from storms. The experience of storms in more recent times can attest to this. The hurricane season of 2004 was historic for a number of reasons, but primarily serves as a stark reminder of some of the more prevalent storms of the last century and to what extent humans are still at the mercy of nature. Florida Hurricanes of the 1920s Brandon Stelck The first quarter of the twentieth century saw the state of Florida develop and mature from a sparsely populated agricultural state to a burgeoning world-class tourist attraction. Good weather, low taxes, and railroads were all reasons why runaway land sales occurred and ultimately allowed south Florida to grow at an unprecedented rate. However, by 1926 the real-estate economy had begun to collapse, and to make matters worse, the arrival of the “Great Miami Hurricane” in September of 1926 and the San Felipe -Okeechobee hurricane of 1928 stymied any further significant growth in south Florida until World War II.1 At the stroke of midnight on September 18, 1926, alarms sounded as a category 4 hurricane struck the heart 1 Michael Gannon, Florida A Short History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 82-85. Volume II, Spring 2005 7 Special Topic: Florida Hurricanes of the 20th Century of Miami. Mostly unaware and definitely unprepared, the population of Miami suffered approximately 380 deaths and 6,000 injuries; and over 18,000 were left homeless. Most of the casualties occurred near Moore Haven, where one of the Lake Okeechobee dikes burst, flooding the town and destroying everything in its path. The winds of the hurricane were estimated at upward of 150 miles per hour. These winds were the highest sustained winds ever recorded in the United States at the time.2 The “Great Miami Hurricane” was not done. It passed over the peninsula and into the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, where it regained strength and sat off the coast of Pensacola two days later, on September 20. The hurricane produced tropical storm conditions for the Gulf Coast for 24 hours before it finally moved on and struck Louisiana on the Septe mber 21.3 In Pensacola Bay, every boat, dock, and pier was destroyed.4 The damage in the Miami area was absolutely devastating. Adjusted for inflation, the “Great Miami Hurricane” was the most expensive hurricane in history, causing $98 billion in damage.5 Two years later, on September 16, 1928, another category 4 hurricane struck south Florida at West Palm 2 “Hurricane Preparedness, Hurricane History,” 2005. FloridaDisaster.Org. http://www.floridadisaster.org/hurricane_aware/english/history _printer.shtml#miami26 3 Hurricane Preparedness, Hurricane History,” 2005. FloridaDisaster.Org. http://www.floridadisaster.org/hurricane_aware/english/history _printer.shtml#miami26 4 Hurricane Preparedness, Hurricane History,” 2005. FloridaDisaster.Org. http://www.floridadisaster.org/hurricane_aware/english/history _printer.shtml#miami26 5 LeeAnn O’Leary, “Most Destructive Hurricanes” 2005. http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art18169.asp 8 Alpata: A Journal of History Special Topic: Florida Hurricanes of the 20th Century Peach. Known as the San Felipe -Okeechobee hurricane, the storm dumped tons of water on Lake Okeechobee, causing the water levels to rise six to nine feet.6 A small levee that had been built on the lake to store extra water for agricultural purposes was overflowed, and over 200 people drowned trying to escape waters that reached in excess of twenty-five feet.7 After all was said in done, over 1,850 people perished in the disaster, most of which were black migrant farm workers who drowned around the area of Lake Okeechobee. The monetary damage in south Florida was estimated at $25 million. The “Great Miami Hurricane” of 1926 and the San Felipe-Okeechobee hurricane of 1928 served to end the population boom in south Florida. While the economy was weakening before the arrival of the hurricanes, the storms showed people they could not build recklessly without first planning ahead for natural disasters. It seems people had forgotten the destructive forces nature could bring upon them, as the last hurricane to hit Florida before the “Great Miami Hurricane” occurred in 1910.8 These hurricanes did serve some good, however, as the public demanded that the federal government develop better warning systems and improve meteorological forecasting in order to thwart the devastation of hurricanes. 6 Hurricane Preparedness, Hurricane History,” 2005.