The Stadio and the Sons of the She-Wolf: Context and Controversy Surrounding Rome’s Stadio dei Marmi Taylor Hartley SIP Supervisor: Dr. Christine Hahn, Professor of Art History A paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Kalamazoo College. 2014 Preface The inspiration for this Senior Individualized Project came as a result of my travels abroad my junior year at Kalamazoo College. My fascination for the city of Rome flourished during my time spent at the American University of Rome. Experiencing the city as a resident led me to notice the influence Mussolini had on the architecture and layout of modern Rome and I subsequently became interested in the Italian Fascist architecture of the 1930s. The study of Fascist architecture led me to find the Stadio dei Marmi and fall in love with its beautifully weird statues. Many people helped this SIP come into being, including: Christine Hahn, who encouraged me to write a research SIP about something I had a passion for and then subsequently listened to me talk endlessly about my topic and helped me flesh out my ideas. It was a pleasure to write this SIP with your help. Anne Haeckl, who rekindled my interest in Rome and taught me everything I know about nude statues. Special thanks for your help translating the Latin inscription on the Bolzano Victory Monument. Patricia Hartley, whose unwavering support and helpful advice were invaluable. Thank you for surrounding me with art and encouraging me at every turn. Thank you for teaching me that education and travel are some of the greatest parts of life. A.J. Hartley, who helped with everything from photography to tracking down a copy of Il Messaggero from 1932. Thank you for helping me turn an interesting excursion into a big research effort. Your interest in my SIP topic has fueled my own and it has been wonderful to bond over this strange stadium. My grandparents, Bob and Mary Hartley: thank you for fostering my love of history and supporting me throughout my educational career. Many of my educational opportunities have been thanks to your support and I appreciate it every day. Claire Fielder, roommate and traveling partner, special thanks for being the best sounding board and friend through the whole SIP process. You knew before I did that I would end up writing this SIP and your love and support have been invaluable. Thank you to my fellow Art History SIP classmates (Sharon Kenney, Miranda Madias, and Madeline Vermeulen) for their feedback and ideas. Thanks to artist David Hinchen, owner of the Etsy.com store davidhinchendesigns for responding to my query regarding his photos of the statues of the Stadio dei Marmi. And, last but not least, special thanks to all of my professors at Kalamazoo College and the American University of Rome and my teachers at The Roeper School. Thank you for the best, most fun education a young woman could ask for. I could not have done it without your guidance and help over the years. Taylor Hartley, Kalamazoo, 2014 ii Abstract This paper will study in-depth the history behind and aesthetics of the Foro Italico stadium complex in Rome (built in the 1930s), with a particular focus on the Stadio dei Marmi, or Stadium of Marbles. Originally called the Foro Mussolini, the Foro Italico is a huge relic of Italian Fascism, the remains of Benito Mussolini’s “sports city” that was intended to promote athleticism and flaunt the power of Fascism. With the exception of the Olympic Stadium, which has been rebuilt several times, the complex remains largely intact today. This paper discusses the Stadio dei Marmi as a representation of the struggles for unity in Italy and the new Fascist ideals of masculinity and meditates on the survival of the Fascist monument. Additionally, the postscript briefly discusses the statues of the Stadio dei Marmi as centerpieces of the gay kitsch and Camp movements of the 1980s. iii Table of Contents Introduction: Welcome to the Foro Italico………………………………… 1 Introduction to the Foro Mussolini and Stadio dei Marmi………………… 5 Statues as a Symbol of National Unity……………………………………. 12 Statues as a Symbol of Fascist Masculinity……………………………….. 21 Stadio dei Marmi as Public Art…………………………………………… 29 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 38 Postscript…………………………………………………………………... 40 Illustrations………………………………………………………………… 43 Bibliography……………………………………………………………….. 85 iv List of Illustrations 1. Photo of Il Monolito, the Mussolini Obelisk, p. 43. 2. Photo of Italian Olympic Headquarters, p. 44. 3. Duce mosaics in Piazzale dell’Impero, p. 45. 4. Molti Nemici Molto Onore mosaics in Piazzale dell’Impero, p. 45. 5. Photo of the Fountain of the Sphere, p. 46. 6. Photo of Stadio dei Marmi, p. 47. 7. Statue of Bergamo, p. 48. 8. Statue of Siracusa, p. 49. 9. Mosaic depicting invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, p. 50. 10. Detailed fasces mosaic, p. 50. 11. Mosaic with Mussolini’s M, p. 51. 12. Ancient mosaics from Ostia Antica, p. 51. 13. Airplane mosaics, p. 52. 14. Mosaic with Italian troops, p. 52. 15. Mosaic with ancient goddess figures, p. 53. 16. Mosaic of the Lupa, p. 53. 17. Statue of the Lupa, p. 54. 18. Mosaic of geometric fasces, p. 54. 19. Statue of Littoria, p. 55. 20. Statue of Rome, p. 56. 21. Statue from Baths of Caracalla, p. 57. 22. Mosaic of Opera Balilla, p. 58. v 23. Statue of Bolzano, p. 59. 24. Statue of Aquila, p. 60. 25. Statue of Venice, p. 61. 26. Statue of Pola, p. 62. 27. Photo of Bolzano Victory Monument, p. 63. 28. Statue of Trieste, p. 64. 29. Statue of Fiume, p. 65. 30. Ancient statue of Hercules, p. 66. 31. Statue of Pola, rear view, p. 67. 32. Statue of Ragusa, p. 68. 33. Statue of Ancona, p. 69. 34. Statue of Trento, p. 70. 35. Kritios Boy, p. 71. 36. Detail of statue of Trento, p. 71. 37. Photo of Fascist gymnasts in the Stadio dei Marmi, p. 72. 38. Statue of Pisa, p. 73. 39. Statue of Rovigo, p. 74. 40. Statue of Catania, p. 75. 41. Statue of Potenza, p. 76. 42. Photo of restored mosaics, p. 77. 43. Photo of restored slogan mosaics, p. 77. 44. Photo of Foro Mussolini as US Army Rest Center, p. 78. 45. Postcard of American soldiers playing football in the Stadio dei Marmi, p. 78. vi 46. Photo of Monte Cassino abbey after Allied bombing, p. 79. 47. Front page of Il Messaggero from November 4, 1932, p. 80. 48. 10 lire postage stamp featuring Stadio dei Marmi, p. 81. 49. Photo of a family playing in the Fountain of the Sphere, p. 81. 50. Photo of runners in the Stadio dei Marmi, p. 82. 51. Photo of the Colosseum, p. 82. 52. Géant de Marbre photo by Patrick Sarfati, p. 83. 53. Statue of Bergamo, rear view, p. 84. vii 1 Introduction: Welcome to the Foro Italico The World Cup stadium in Rome, the site of all major soccer matches, is a shining modern dome that lies in the midst of now-ancient relics of Fascism. To enter the stadium, one must walk under a massive obelisk of creamy Carrara marble proclaiming MVSSOLINI DVX (fig. 1). On either side of the obelisk are ruddy red buildings with fiercely rectangular windows and huge white statues in recessed niches (fig. 2). After walking under the towering monument to Benito Mussolini (1922-1943), the soccer fan or tourist enters the gate and walks over a seemingly endless walkway of black and white mosaics. To the careful observer, these mosaics are a sprawling scene of propaganda, praising the Fascist defeat of Ethiopia in 1936 and the strength and honor of the Italian people. Their sharp, geometric style instills a sense of foreboding that is exacerbated by the shadow of Mussolini’s monument. Even the casual passerby cannot help but see the words DVCE DVCE DVCE (a Latinization of Mussolini’s title, il Duce) and the slogan MOLTI NEMICI, MOLTO ONORE (many enemies, much honor) emblazoned on the ground (fig. 3, 4). From the dry, weathered Fountain of the Sphere in the center (fig. 5), one can go forward into the 1990 World Cup stadium, a massive modern soccer stadium with a white crown of crisscrossed pipes. Turning left sends the visitor into the old and modern tennis courts amidst a smattering of towering statues. To the right lies a vast oval of powerful white statues surrounding a track and field stadium. This is the Stadio dei Marmi, or Stadium of Marbles. On a quiet day in winter, the complex feels grey and eerie; the Fascist relics stand seemingly abandoned around the new soccer stadium. The massive complex of buildings and stadiums is haunted by the memory of Fascism and simultaneously unsettles and charms the visitor with its moldering totalitarian ruins. 2 This complex was called the Foro Mussolini, or Mussolini Forum, when the architect Enrico del Debbio began work on it in 1928.1 Today, the complex of Fascist buildings and monuments is called the Foro Italico, or Italian Forum, and houses the Olympic headquarters for Italy (fig. 2), as well as the World Cup Stadium (previously the Olympic stadium), and the site of all major tennis matches in Rome. At the Foro Italico, the ruins of a long dead government are buzzing with life. Some of the areas of the Foro Italico have been updated, most notably the Olympic Stadium and the tennis courts, but one area remains remarkably untouched. This is the Stadio dei Marmi (fig. 6), opened in 1932 and used for Fascist party rallies and youth group activities.2 The Stadio dei Marmi is a strange and wondrous place.