The Cognitive Dimensions of Music Notations Chris Nash Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, United Kingdom [email protected] ABSTRACT 2. FROM PROGRAMMING TO MUSIC This paper presents and adapts the Cognitive Dimensions There are many parallels between programming and of Notations framework (Green and Petre, 1996) for use creative musical scenarios such as composition, both in in designing and analysing notations (and user interfaces) digital interaction and more traditional music practice. in both digital and traditional music practice and study. Fundamentally, both practices can be mediated through Originally developed to research the psychology of notation. In Western music, formal training and practice programming languages, the framework has since found is oriented around the musical score. Composers exploit wider use in both general HCI and music. The paper the flexible affordances of pencil and paper to sketch and provides an overview of the framework, its application, experiment with musical ideas, before transcribing their and a detailed account of the core cognitive dimensions, work more formally for communication to the performer, each discussed in the context of three music scenarios: who interprets the notation to realise the written form as the score, Max/MSP, and sequencer/DAW software. music (i.e. sound). The listener, as the consumer, does not Qualitative and quantitative methodologies for applying see the notation. In programming, developers describe the framework are presented in closing, highlighting processes and interactive systems in source code, using directions for further development of the framework. symbol-based formal languages (such as C/C++, BASIC, or LISP). The code is compiled or interpreted by the 1. INTRODUCTION computer to create a program that encapsulates some kind of functionality and processing of input and/or output. As Music and programming are two creative mediums in music, the end-user does not see the source code. mediated through notation. In both scenarios, notation is In both instances, the formal rules of the notation define used to describe the behaviour of a system for subsequent what actions and entities can be represented with respect execution – be that by computer or human performer. As to the creative domain – music or program behaviour. a representation of a creative domain, notation shapes The musical score developed over centuries to efficiently how the practitioner perceives and interacts with their art. capture the formal rules of Western tonal music, during In formal systems, such as computers and common the common practice period (1600-1900). [2] While this practice music, the design of notation defines what covers a wide gamut of musical practices and styles, and actions and expressions are possible. However, the design continues to be relevant in modern styles, the format and of notation and techniques for manipulating can also conventions of the score implicitly shape the creativity of dispose (or discourage) users to certain actions and anyone working through it. [3,4,5] formulations – what actions and expressions are easy. Unlike music, no single standard programming notation This paper draws on research and findings in the exists; users have an element of choice over formalisms. psychology of programming and music HCI to describe a Most coding languages are Turing complete, meaning flexible approach to analysing and evaluating notations they are practically capable of encapsulating any and user interfaces in a variety of digital and traditional desired computer functionality. Thus, the issue with such musical practices. It begins with a discussion of the notations is not what is possible, but what functionality is parallels between musical creativity (e.g. composition) easy or quick to code, given the formal rules of the and programming, before introducing the Cognitive notation. [1] Different languages (and dialects) offer Dimensions of Notation framework. [1] To demonstrate distinctions in syntax and semantics to facilitate different the application and adaptability of the framework, users and uses. For example: BASIC is designed using Section 4 explores sixteen core dimensions of notation simple English keywords to be easily comprehended by use through three scenarios of notation-mediated music beginners (at the expense of structure); Assembler more interaction: sketching and transcription using traditional directly exposes low-level workings of hardware (at the score; audio/music programming using Max/MSP; and expense of human-readability); and object-oriented composition and production using a sequencer or digital languages, like Java and C++, are designed around audio workstation (DAW). Finally, Section 5 offers a creating modular systems and abstract data models that survey of methodologies for applying the framework. map onto user ontologies to enable notation of both low- and high-level concepts. As music notation similarly Copyright: © 2015 Chris Nash. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 3.0 Unported, seeks to support beginners, instrument affordances, and which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medi- flexible levels of abstract representation, it is instructive um, provided the original author and source are credited. to analyse usability factors in notations for programming. Beyond the format of notation, editing tools also impact dependencies (~ invisible relationships). Moreover, some the usability of a notation, and although text-based dimensions are value-laden; intuitively it may be difficult notations can be separated from code editors, other to see how error proneness, hard mental operations, and programming paradigms are more integrated with the hidden dependencies are desirable. However, knowledge user experience of the development environment. For of these relationships can be useful in solving usability example, visual programming languages (VPLs), such as issues, where a solution to one dimension can be ad- Max/MSP, are manipulated through a graphical user dressed through a design manœuvre targeted at another. interface, the usability of which impacts how users The exact set of cognitive dimensions is not fixed, and perceive the language and its capabilities. Other coders various proposals for new dimensions, designed to develop using an integrated development environment capture aspects of a notation or user experience beyond (IDE), offering unified platform for writing, building, the original framework, have been forwarded – many running and debugging code. The integration of such arising from its expanded use in other fields in and tools allows code edits to be quickly tested and evaluated, around HCI (non-programming interaction, tangibles, accelerating the feedback cycle and thus enabling rapid computer music). New dimensions should be measured application development, in turn facilitating experimenta- against the aforementioned requirements, but their value tion and ideation. [6] Thus, any approach for analysing is most effectively gauged by how much they reveal notation should likewise address factors in the UI. about the interaction context in question, and arguably In music, similar considerations can be made of the the greatest contribution of the framework is that it design of interactive modes supported by tools to provides a vocabulary and structure for discussing and manipulate notations – be that pencil and paper, ink and analysing notation from multiple perspectives. printer, or mouse and computer screen. Score notation As an HCI tool (and in contrast to other usability meth- supports composers in creating music, performers in odologies), it allows both broad and detailed analysis of interpreting it, scholars in analysing it, and learners in human factors in a notation or user interface, adaptable to understanding it. In each case, practitioners use different different use cases and audiences. By considering each techniques and tools to interact with the encapsulated cognitive dimension in the context of a specific system, music. Moreover, while music plays a functional role in designers and evaluators can assess how the notation fits many aspects of culture, it is also about personal, creative their user or activity type, whether that’s making end-user expression, and thus it is important to look at how the systems easier to use [5] or making musical interaction development of musical ideas is shaped by the design of more rewarding by increasing challenge. [8,9] notations. To consider this, the following section uses the For a detailed discussion of the background and defini- analogue of programming to adapt an established analysis tion of dimensions in the original framework, see [1]. For framework that might be used to reveal limitations, influ- further publications on the subject, see the framework’s ences and opportunities in music notations and interfaces. resource site and associated bibliography.1 3. A USABILITY FRAMEWORK 4. DIMENSIONS OF MUSIC NOTATION The Cognitive Dimensions of Notations [1] is a usability In this section, sixteen core dimensions of the framework, framework originally developed by Thomas R. G. Green adapted for a musical context, are detailed and discussed and Marian Petre, to explore the psychology of interac- in the context of three common musical interaction sce- tion with notation