VOICES FROM THE FAULT LINE VOICES FROM THE FAULT LINE: BEING MUSLIM IN CANADA By SABREENA GHAFFAR-SIDDIQUI, B.A. (Hons.), M.A A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Sabreena Ghaffar-Siddiqui, December 2019 ii DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2019) McMaster University (Sociology) Hamilton, Ontario TITLE: Voices from the Fault line: Being Muslim in Canada Author: Sabreena Ghaffar-Siddiqui Supervisor: Dr. Victor Satzewich Number of Pages: xiii, 273 iii Lay Abstract This dissertation analyses the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in Canada face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. The thesis explores three themes: 1) how Islamophobia may be structurally maintained and propagated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, 2) how Islamophobia and anti-Muslim hate is experienced differently by different groups of Muslims in Canada, and (3) how there may be a connection between race and social class in individual responses to Islamophobia. By adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary, this work is a unique contribution to existing literature, and to our understanding of the differing lived experiences of being Muslim in the West and the varying ways in which Islamophobia informs the day to day lives of Muslim Canadians. iv Abstract Previous literature, although helpful in demonstrating the insidious nature and effects of Islamophobia on Muslims, does not underscore the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in the West face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. This dissertation contributes to the literature on Muslims in The West in three ways: (1) offering a qualitative approach to understanding the ways in which Islamophobia is perpetuated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, and is experienced differently by a diverse range of Muslims in Canada, (2) adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary on integration and articulating their relationship with identity, and (3) making a connection between race and social class and the response to Islamophobia and articulating their relationship with human agency. In chapter one, I provide an in- depth literature review on Islamophobia in the West. In chapter two, I present the results of a discourse analysis study that highlights the structural dimensions of Islamophobia through media representations and framing of incidences involving Muslim vs. non-Muslim perpetrators of violence. In chapter three, I present the results of a study that showcases group level experiences of racism amongst a relatively powerless group of Muslim refugee youth in Hamilton Ontario and St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador. In chapter four, I provide a contrasting response to stigma by reporting on the experiences and mobilization of a socioeconomically privileged group of first, second and third generation Muslims in Edmonton. Finally, I v summarize the conceptual findings of each paper, review and discuss the general theoretical and conceptual contributions of the dissertation to existing literature, and provide suggestions on future directions for studying Islamophobia and Muslim integration in The West. vi Acknowledgements This dissertation has benefitted from the support of many individuals, some of whom I would like to take a moment to express my heartfelt gratitude. First and foremost, I thank God, for the countless blessings in my life that have allowed me to pursue higher education and specifically, for giving me the strength and patience over the last few years to persevere and finish my PhD, despite the many challenges along the way, the hardest of which was the loss of my younger brother. Secondly, I would like to thank my excellent supervisor Dr. Victor Satzewich. Vic, you have been so encouraging and kind to me over the years. Thank you for always being available and providing me with such sage advice on all things academic. Thank you for putting up with my crazy and ambitious ideas and waiting patiently for me to realise myself how crazy and ambitious they actually were. Thank you for taking time to read and re-read my various drafts and for the very detailed feedback, even while en-route to vacation. But most of all, thank you for believing in me and my topic. I could not have asked for a better mentor and guide during the last very gruelling years. I would also like to thank my other committee members, Dorothy Pawluch and Neil McLaughlin for their invaluable contribution to my dissertation and in helping me become a better scholar. As well, I would like to thank Corinne Jehle and Olga Cannon of the Sociology Department for being so friendly, kind, supportive, and helpful over the years. Lastly, I would like to thank my family, who have all been integral to my success. My husband has been the main pillar of support for me. Soheb, thank you for making it easier for me to pursue my dream. Without you showing me so much love vii and care and alleviating some of my burdens, there is no doubt that I would not have been able to achieve this accolade. I love you. I would also like to thank my children, Alaina, Noah, Zidān, and Misha’al, for their patience and love during all the times I had to juggle motherhood with being a graduate student. Thank you to my brothers, Aamir, Wassiq and Ma-Arej and my sister Rafia, and all their families for the love, guidance, encouragement, words of wisdom, and the many visits that have helped me get through the last few difficult years. Thank you all for making me smile and laugh during the tough times. Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents – Mummy, who sadly could not be here to see me overcome the obstacles and reach this milestone, but is responsible for instilling the fighting spirit in me, and Papa, who put such tremendous effort into my education in my early years and ignited my passion for knowledge. It is because of the hard work and personal sacrifices of my immigrant parents that I have achieved such distinction today. Family, you are all the wind beneath my wings. I love you. viii In loving memory of my mother, Mona Mukhtiar Ghaffar (1951-2006) and my brother, Haris Ghaffar (1982-2014) ix Table of Contents INTRODUCTION…………………………………...………………………...………1 Background……………………………………………………...……….…….4 Muslims in Canada…………………………………………………….4 Islam Under the Spotlight………………………….……………….….8 Racism……………………..…………………………………………19 Immigration and Racism…………………………………...…………25 Islamophobia and Anti-Muslim Racism……………...………………27 Previous Literature on The Muslim Experience……………………………...37 Post 9/11…………………...…………………………………………37 Borders……..………………………………………………………....39 Youth…………………………..……………………………………..41 Healthcare…………………………………..………………………...43 Employment…………………………..……………………………....44 Overview.……………………………………………………………………..45 PAPER 1: Naming and Framing the Muslim Problem in Canada: A Media Discourse Analysis Introduction………………………………...……………………...………….50 Background……………………………………...……………………………54 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………….59 Methodology.………………………………………...……………………….64 Analysis…………………………………………………………………..…..67 Conclusion………………………..…………………….…………..……..….88 References…………………...……………………………………………..…90 PAPER 2: Multiple Stigmas: Racialized Muslim Refugee Youth Experiences of Discrimination Introduction……………………………………………….....………………107 Background………………………………………….………………....……111 Theoretical Orientations………………………………......……………..….116 Methodology………………………………………………...…………...….124 Analysis……………………………………………………...……………...125 Conclusion………………………………………...……………………...…137 References…………………………………..……………….………………140 PAPER 3: Tarjuma translation: A Canadian Muslim Response to Social and Spiritual Marginalization Introduction…………………………..………………………………….….153 x Background……………………..…………………………………………..157 Methodology……………………..……………………………………….…160 Analysis……………………………...…………………………………...…162 Conclusion………………………….…………………………..………...…196 References………………….………………………………………………..198 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….……..204 Summary………………………………..…………………………….….….205 Contributions……………………..……………………………...….……....210 The Orientalism of Today……………………..……………………210 Complex Identities Complex Experiences………..………………...214 Structural Constraints……..………………………………………...218 Liminal Spaces as Junctures of Agency………..…………………...220 Class Matters……………..…………………………………………223 Directions for Future Research……………………………...………………226 Final Thoughts…………………...………………………………………….235 REFERENCES…………...……………………………………………...…….……237 xi List of Figures Figure a – “The Outer Push”………………………………………………………..179 xii Declaration of Academic Achievement I, Sabreena Ghaffar-Siddiqui, am responsible for this program of research and thesis in its entirety. However, for paper 2, I have used data from a research project conducted by Dr. James Baker, for which I was the research assistant. I co-conducted a majority of the interviews for that project. I transcribed all the interviews and the analysis for paper 2 was performed solely by me. For papers 1 and 3, I am responsible for the design, research and analysis of the projects entirely. For paper 3,