Adhyayanavidhiḥ A Manual of Sanskrit andrew ollett Version: September 23, 2021 note: This is a work in progress, and this document may not reflect the latest version. See http://prakrit.info/vrddhi/ grammar for the latest version. (This document, and the HTML version there, are generated from the same source files.) Contents Contents 1 1 Phonology 3 §1. Basic concepts ................................ 3 §1.1. Phonemes .............................. 4 §1.2. Features ............................... 5 §2. Vowels .................................... 7 §2.1. Vowel gradation ........................... 9 §2.2. Vowel length ............................ 10 §2.3. Vowel pitch ............................. 11 §3. Consonants ................................. 11 §3.1. Occlusives (sparśā́ḥ) ......................... 12 §3.2. Approximants (antaḥsthāḥ) ..................... 16 §3.3. Fricatives (ūṣmāṇaḥ) ......................... 17 §3.4. Dependent sounds (ayōgavāhāḥ) .................. 18 §4. Phonemes .................................. 19 §4.1. The Śivasūtras ............................ 20 §5. Syllables (akṣaram) ............................. 22 §5.1. Weight ................................ 23 1 2 Contents §6. Words (padāni) ............................... 23 §6.1. Accent (sváraḥ) ........................... 24 §6.2. Vowel gradation ........................... 26 §6.3. Vowel gradation with nasals ..................... 28 §6.4. Vowel gradation with laryngeals .................. 29 §6.5. Saṁprasā́raṇam ........................... 31 §6.6. Ṇ-vŕ̥ddhiḥ .............................. 32 §6.7. Independent words, enclitics, and proclitics . 33 §7. Phonotactics (sandhíḥ) ............................ 35 §7.1. Internal and external sandhi ..................... 35 §7.2. Word-final sounds .......................... 37 §7.3. Utterance-final sounds ........................ 39 §7.4. External consonant sandhiḥ ..................... 40 §7.5. Visargasandhiḥ ............................ 43 §7.6. Internal consonant sandhiḥ: Voice ................. 48 §7.7. Internal consonant sandhiḥ: Aspiration ............... 51 §7.8. Internal consonant sandhiḥ: Retroflexion . 52 §7.9. Internal consonant sandhíḥ: Depalatalization . 54 §7.10. Internal consonant sandhíḥ: Assimilation of nasals . 56 §7.11. Combinations of vowels ...................... 56 §7.12. Combinations of vowels: synhaeresis . 57 §7.13. Combinations of vowels: diphthongization . 57 §7.14. Combinations of vowels: glide formation . 58 2 Nominal Morphology 61 §8. Nominals .................................. 61 §8.1. Stems and ending .......................... 62 §8.2. Gender (liṅgam) ........................... 63 adhyayanavidhiḤ 3 §8.3. Number (saṁkhyā́) ......................... 64 §8.4. Case (vibháktiḥ) ........................... 64 §9. Endings ................................... 65 §9.1. Accent; “strong” and “weak” cases . 66 §9.2. First or nominative case (prathamā́ vibháktiḥ) . 67 §9.3. Second or accusative case (dvitī́yā vibháktiḥ) . 67 §9.4. Third or instrumental case (tr̥tī́yā vibháktiḥ) . 67 §9.5. Fourth or dative case (caturthī́ vibháktiḥ) . 68 §9.6. Fifth or ablative case (pañcamī́ vibháktiḥ) . 68 §9.7. Sixth or genitive case (ṣaṣṭhī́ vibháktiḥ) . 68 §9.8. Seventh or locative case (saptamī́ vibháktiḥ) . 68 §9.9. The vocative (sambṓdhanam) .................... 69 §9.10. The suffix tasI ........................... 69 §10. Root nouns ................................. 69 §11. Stems ending in vowels ........................... 70 §11.1. Stems ending in -a (akārāntāni) .................. 71 §11.2. Stems ending in -i (ikārāntāni) ................... 74 §11.3. Stems ending in -u (ukārāntāni) . 79 §11.4. Stems ending in -ā (ākārāntāni) . 81 §11.5. Stems ending in -ī (īkārāntāni) ................... 82 §11.6. Stems ending in -ū (ūkārāntāni) .................. 84 §11.7. Stems ending in -r̥ (r̥kārāntāni) ................... 85 §11.8. Stems ending in diphthongs .................... 88 §12. Stems ending in consonants (halantāni) . 91 §12.1. Stems ending in -s ......................... 92 §12.2. Stems ending in -n ......................... 95 §12.3. Stems ending in -t and -d . 100 §12.4. Stems ending in palatals ...................... 104 4 Contents §13. Pronouns .................................. 106 §13.1. Personal pronouns . 109 §13.2. The tá-/yá-/ká- series ........................ 111 §13.3. The demonstrative stem idám .................... 115 §13.4. The demonstrative stem adás .................... 116 §14. Numerals .................................. 117 §14.1. Cardinal numbers .......................... 117 §14.2. Ordinals .............................. 123 §14.3. The bhūtasaṁkhyā system . 125 §15. Adjectives .................................. 125 §15.1. Comparison of adjectives . 126 §16. Adverbs ................................... 130 §16.1. Regular case-forms used adverbially . 130 §16.2. Special adverbial forms ....................... 132 §16.3. The suffix tasI ............................ 135 3 Verbal Morphology 137 §17. Verbs .................................... 137 §17.1. Verbal roots ............................. 138 §17.2. Sēṭ and Aniṭ roots .......................... 139 §17.3. Tenses and moods ......................... 140 §17.4. lakārāḥ ............................... 143 §17.5. Person (puruṣaḥ) .......................... 144 §17.6. Number (saṁkhyā) ......................... 145 §17.7. Diathesis or voice .......................... 145 §18. Verbal endings (tiṄ ) ............................ 147 §18.1. Parasmaipadám endings ....................... 148 §18.2. Ātmanēpadám endings ....................... 151 adhyayanavidhiḤ 5 §18.3. The optative suffix ......................... 153 §19. The past-tense augment .......................... 154 §20. The present system ............................. 154 §20.1. The first class (bhvādigaṇaḥ) .................... 157 §20.2. The second class (adādigaṇaḥ) . 161 §20.3. The third class (hvādigaṇaḥ) .................... 164 §20.4. The fourth class (divādigaṇaḥ) . 167 §20.5. The fifth class (svādigaṇaḥ) ..................... 170 §20.6. The sixth class (tudādigaṇaḥ) ................... 173 §20.7. The seventh class (rudhādigaṇaḥ) .................. 176 §20.8. The eighth class (tanādigaṇaḥ) ................... 179 §20.9. The ninth class (kryādigaṇaḥ) ................... 183 §20.10. The tenth class (curādigaṇaḥ) ................... 185 §20.11. The passive/impersonal of the present system (yaK) . 185 §20.12. The present participle ....................... 189 §21. The perfect system ............................. 191 §21.1. Reduplication ............................ 192 §21.2. Endings ............................... 194 §21.3. Vowel gradation .......................... 196 §21.4. The weak stem . 197 §21.5. The strong stem . 199 §21.6. Paradigms ............................. 201 §22. The aorist systems ............................. 202 §22.1. The sigmatic aorists ......................... 204 §22.2. The sa-aorist (Ksa) . 208 §22.3. The root aorist . 209 §22.4. The thematic aorist (aṄ ) . 210 §22.5. The reduplicated aorist (caṄ ) . 212 6 Contents §22.6. The passive aorist (CiṆ ) ...................... 214 §22.7. The injunctive ........................... 214 §23. The futures ................................. 215 §23.1. The future (lr̥ṭ) ........................... 215 §23.2. The periphrastic future (luṭ) .................... 218 §24. Secondary verbs (sanādiḥ) ......................... 218 §24.1. The causative ............................ 219 §24.2. The desiderative (saN ) ....................... 227 §24.3. The intensive ............................ 229 §25. Denominal verbs .............................. 234 §25.1. Compounded verbs (cvi) . 234 §25.2. Denominative verbs (nāmadhātavaḥ) . 235 §26. Verbal prefixes (gátiḥ) ........................... 239 §26.1. Preverbs (upasargā́ḥ) ........................ 240 §26.2. Other verbal prefixes . 242 §26.3. “Honorary prefixes” (Cvi) . 242 §27. The infinitive ................................ 243 §28. The converb ................................ 246 §28.1. -tvā́ (Ktvā) ............................. 248 §28.2. -ya (LyaP) ............................. 249 §28.3. -am (ṆamUL) . 250 §28.4. Negating the converb ....................... 251 4 Indeclinables 253 §29. Particles .................................. 253 §29.1. ápi ................................. 255 §29.2. iva ................................. 257 §29.3. ēvá ................................. 257 adhyayanavidhiḤ 7 §29.4. ca .................................. 260 §29.5. tā́vat ................................ 260 §29.6. tu .................................. 261 §29.7. na .................................. 261 §29.8. púnar ................................ 261 §29.9. mā́ ................................. 261 §29.10. vā ................................. 262 §29.11. sma ................................. 262 §29.12. hē ................................. 263 §29.13. rē ................................. 263 §30. Adpositions (karmapravacanī́yāḥ) ..................... 263 §30.1. álam ................................ 263 §30.2. ā́ .................................. 264 §30.3. práti ................................ 264 §30.4. sahá ................................ 265 5 Derivational Suffixes 267 §31. Derivation ................................. 267 §32. Primary derivational suffixes (kr̥t) . 268 §33. Past verbal adjectives (niṣṭhā́) . 268 §33.1. The past passive participle (-tá-) .................. 269 §33.2. The past active participle (-távat-) . 276 §34. Future verbal adjectives .........................