Copyright by Ikram Toumi 2016 The Dissertation Committee for Ikram Toumi Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Information and Computer Technology and the Digital Divide in the Post-Revolution Tunisia Committee: Joseph D. Straubhaar, Supervisor Mounira Charrad Wenhong Chen Kathleen Tyner Karin Wilkins Information and Computer Technology and the Digital Divide in the Post-Revolution Tunisia by Ikram Toumi, B.S; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May, 2016 Dedication To all the Tunisian martyrs and revolutionaries who took it upon themselves to give us back our dignity and pride. Acknowledgements Although this work has officially seen the light in 2016, it is the product of 7 years of experience, work, and interactions with an incredible team of professors. First of all, I consider myself to be lucky for meeting and working under the supervision of Dr. Joseph Straubhaar. I would like to thank him for his assistance and guidance throughout the course of this work. I also would like to thank him for allowing me to be part of the Austin Memorial project, which greatly influenced and shaped my research identity and interests. I am also grateful to my committee members’ valuable input which helped narrow the focus of this work and shape its outcome. I am also grateful to them for the wonderful courses I took with them. I would like to thank Dr. Tyner, whose media literacy course will always remain one of the best classes I have ever taking. Besides, I would like to thank her for her encouragement and for the great feedback and input on my drafts. To Dr. Chen for introducing me to media literacy. Her course Globalization was also a wonderful learning experience. I also was fortunate to take Dr. Wilkins’ methods course, which gave me the tools to conduct this project and will accompany me in more projects to come. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Charrad not only for her academic input but also for being a great friend. Her invitations during the holidays gave me, my husband, and my kids, a sense of family and community. For that I will always be appreciative. This project was only possible because of the hospitality and kindness of the wonderful people I interviewed in Sousse. I would like to also thank them for their hospitality, for the wonderful cups of tea and Tunisian sweets. v Next, this project would not have been possible without my strong background as part of a wonderful family, friends, and community. For that, I would like to first thank my parents for instilling in me the importance of education. You are the best parents ever. Even when things got painfully stressful, I never questioned this process and never considered quitting, it was not an option, that's what I learned from you and because of it, this work has seen the light. To my siblings and my wonderful little nephews, Abir, Oussama, Tarek, and the little stars: Baraa, Aya, Nourane, and Shada. Thank you all for your support. I hope to always make you proud. To my extended family, thank you for believing in me, for your hospitality and for making summer a wonderful break for me and my kids, for your confidence in me, your pride, and support. Thank you also for calling me a Doctor very early in the process. You gave me a drive to finish and earn the title you attached to my name. To Nahla and Nouha for their support throughout the process of interviewing and writing. For driving me around, taking me to different neighborhoods, and introducing me to all the wonderful people I met and interviewed. Thank you also for all the information you helped me gather, all the pictures and exhausting visits to the administrative offices and personnel. To my best friends in the US. Keara Goin and Katherine Piati. I am honored to be your friend, you were wonderful academic role models to me and you are and will always be my wonderful “American” friends. To all the wonderful Tunisian ladies of Austin. Your unconditional love and support made the achievement of this work less painful and more pleasant. To Abir, Amira, Basma, Basma-K, Ilham, Monia, Layla, Nacira, Yosra, and achirti Wafa, thank you for everything, I love you all. Go Houma! vi To Mayara, thank you Yayyouti for the understanding and the support, which were more valuable than you can ever imagine. You are truly exceptional, inspiring, and funny! You rock! To Bayram, thank you for the laughter, the great contagious energy, and love. You and your sister will take over the world. And finally, to the best thing that ever happened to me, my husband and soul mate Mourad whose patience, support, and academic input played a crucial part in developing this work. You are AWESOME and as impressive now as you were when I first knew you. vii Information and Computer Technology and the Digital Divide in the Post- Revolution Tunisia Ikram Toumi, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2016 Supervisor: Joseph D. Straubhaar The goal of this study is to better understand the dimensions of the digital divide in Tunisia in the context of the post-revolutionary phase. The significant role of information and communication technologies (ICT) during the revolution and in the post-revolution democracy process raises questions about the inclusiveness of the digital sphere to all Tunisian social groups and about the overall interactions with the ICT and their domestication into the Tunisian households. This study was designed to answer three main research questions: what are the implications of gender, age, and class for (1) ICT access and usage? (2) Attitudes towards ICT? And (3) ICT usage for political participation? An ethnographic semi-structured interview study was conducted in three neighborhoods of the city of Sousse in Tunisia over a two-week period of intensive field work, and was complemented by observations of the locals’ interactions with ICT during multiple visits to Tunisia. Respondents were recruited through snowball and convenience sampling. The study focused on those considered to be vulnerable social communities: women, the elderly, and socioeconomically disadvantaged Tunisians. The interview analysis revealed that demographic factors did not have a significant influence on the gaps between the users and non- users, except for age in certain instances. The concept of social capital made the difference and had a significant effect on balancing issues related to economic and cultural capitals. For most of viii the informants, social capital, mainly family and community members, played an integral role in domesticating the technologies and brokering techno-competencies to those without economic and educational means. On the other hand, perceived relevance and cultural values emerged as the most significant divide factors. This project makes a theoretical contribution to the literature about the digital divide by emphasizing the role of the cultural values and the social landscape in reducing or widening the gap between the connected and non-connected. This dissertation stresses on the importance of conducting more ethnographic research in small Arab world community contexts in order to reveal more culturally embedded factors that directly affect the interaction between the culture and information technologies. ix Table of Contents List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction and Problem Statement ...................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................. 8 1.2.1 ICT at Home ....................................................................................................... 8 1.2.2 Internet and Empowerment ................................................................................ 11 1.2.3 The digital divide: A barrier to social inclusion .................................................... 12 1.2.4 ICT and Political Participation ............................................................................ 18 1.3 THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: TUNISIA .......................................................................... 19 1.3.1 History and Society ........................................................................................... 19 1.3.2 ICT and Digital Divide in Tunisia ....................................................................... 23 1.3.3 The Revolution and a New Techno-Political Context ............................................ 27 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................. 30 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................... 31 1.6 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 32 Chapter 2: Social Capital or the AliBaba Cavern of Techno-Capital ....................................... 43 2.1 PIERRE BOURDIEU AND THE MULTIPLE LAYERS OF “CAPITAL” ........................................ 43 2.2 ACCESS AND OWNERSHIP ............................................................................................