rr CHINESE RELIGIONS: CONFUCIANISM and DAOISM TODAY IS QJNGMJNG, a "pure and bright" day (the literal meaning of this Chinese compound word) that arrives once a year, 105 days after the winter solstice. It is a day for all Chinese families to remember their dead relatives and ancestors in a very public way. Spring is definitely in the air. The days have been getting longer and warmer. The rice seedlings, standing in neat rows in ankle-deep water in the paddy fields, wave gracefully in the gentle breeze. Their luxuriant greenness is most pleasing to the eyes of Chen Liang,' a peasant from Southern China in his early fifties. He and his two sons have been working hard in the past couple of months to plow and flood the paddy fields, seed the nursery plots, and then transplant the young seedlings one at a time into their current location. It is a tedious and backbreaking job that the Chen family has been doing for generations. But today there will be no work in the fields. Qingming marks the re- newal of spring. It also celebrates the rekindling of the kitchen fire. Two days earlier the old fire was put out, so only cold food had been served. Chen Liang and his wife get up today at the crack of dawn to light a new fire in the kitchen. Leftovers from the previous days' cold meals are wrapped in rice pancakes and fried, making "spring rolls" that many Chinese restaurants the world over serve regularly on their appetizer menu. They prepare for an important fam ily gathering at the ancestral graves of the Chen clan. During this annual event, family members gather at and sweep Woman making offerings in front of her ancestor's tomb. 246 Chapter 8 CHINESE RELIGIONS: CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM OUTER ) MANCHURIA MONGOLIA Sea of MONGOLIA INNER Japan ,:\t MONGOLIA /' \ '-- H (4.. •Dunhuan g ·' CHINA f East China Mt. Longhu Shan /)a Sea PACIFIC Taipei •' OCEAN / South 0 km 200 400 M China Sea ' 0 miles 200 400 Important Confucian and Daoist sites the graves of their relatives and ancestors to renew their kinship ties with both the in China. dead and the living. Platefuls of fruits, freshly steamed chickens, a whole roasted pig, bottles of wine, bundles of incense sticks and bright-red candles, and strings of fire- crackers, as well as piles of make-believe paper money and paper clothing for the dead, are all ready to be carried to the lineage burial ground just outside the village. At the gravesite, where several generations of the Chen clan are buried, Chen Liang meets up with his three brothers, his five cousins, and their families. The children, numbering more than twenty, are all dressed in brightly colored clothing, giggling and playing. They help remove overgrown weeds, clean the tombstones, and arrange food in front of the graves. Then, by generation and birth order, all members of the Chen clan take part in the annual ritual. They bow before their ancestors, address them in silent prayers, offer them wine and food, send them clothing and stacks of under- world money by burning paper imitations of those goods, and set off firecrackers to scare off wandering ghosts unrelated to the family. Afterward a picture is taken of the entire gathering in front of the graves. The fami- lies divide up the fruits and the meats to be consumed later back at their respective homes. The men linger to talk about the weather and the crops, the women catch up on family news, and the children play. TIMELINE Daoism and Confucianism Era in Chinese History Daoism Confucianism Shang-Zhou dynasties Ancient Chinese relig ion Ancient Chinese rel igion (C. 1600-256 B.C.E.*) Shamans Beg inning of Ru tradition Spring and Autumn World-escaping recluses and hermits Confucius (551-479 s.c.E.) (c. 722-481 B.C.E.) Warring States Zhuangzi (365-290 s.c.E.*), Daodejing Mencius (371-289 s.c.E.*.), (c. 480-221 B.C.E.) (earliest extant ed. c. 300 s.c.E.) Xunzi (c. 310-238 s.c.E.*.) Early Han Dynasty Worship of Xiwangmu [Queen Mother Confucianism declared orthodox (136 c.E.); (206 B.C.E.-9 C.E.) of the West) Five Classics designated Later Han Dynasty Laozi deified as Taishang Laojun. Confucian classical commentaries and (25-220 C.E.) Tianshi [Celestial Master] movement Scholasticism founded by Zhang Daoling (142 c.E.) Laozi bianhuajing (Classic of Laozi's Transformations) (170s*) Period of Disunion Shangqing [Highest Clarity] movement Confucian texts introduced to Korea, and (221-589) [fourth century) subsequently to Japan Lingbao [Numinous Treasure] Movement (fourth century) Tang Dynasty First attempt at compiling canon First stirring of Neo-Confucianism (618-907) State patronage of Daoism Daoism merged with Chinese folk re ligion Song Dynasty Quanzhen [Complete Perfection] Neo-Confucianism: Zhu Xi (1130-1200) (907-1279) movement founded by Wang Zhe (1113-1170) Yuan Dynasty Four Books designated as civil service (1279-1368) examination curri culum (1313) Ming Dynasty Daozang compiled (1445) Wang Yangming (1472-1529), an alternative (1368-1644) Daoist sacrificial rituals and notions of Neo-Confucian view to Zhu Xi's health influenced both elites and Confucianism became state orthodoxy in commoners in Korea, Japan, and Joseon dynasty (1392-1897) Korea Southeast Asia Confucianism also became state ideology in Tokugawa Japan (1600-1868) Oing Dynasty Civil service examination abolished (1905) (1644-1911) Confucianism became dominant ideology in Nguyen dynasty Vietnam (1802-1945) Early twentieth Chinese intellectuals criticized Daoism Chinese intellectuals rejected Confucianism century as superstition as feudal and reactionary Communist China Cultura l Revolution (1966-1976) Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) devastated (1949-present) devastated Daoism Confucianism Daoism gradually recovering since Confucianism gradually recovering 19805 since 1980s Note: Asterisks indicate contested or approximate da tes. 248 Chapter 8 CHINESE RELIGIONS: CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM atherings similar to that of the Chen extended family are replicated millions of times throughout China in observance of qingming. It is through this ac- G tivity of paying homage to the ancestors and reaffirming kinship relations that the Chinese act out one of their most basic religious assumptions. At the core of this ritual is the Confucian notion of filial piety (honoring parents and ancestors) and of the centrality of the family in Confucian teaching. Equally on display is the Daoist (Taoist) attentiveness to changes in season and in nature, as well as the practice of warding off unwelcome ghosts through thunderous explosives. From this single family ritual we see that Confucianism and Daoism can coexist quite harmoniously among the Chinese, with no sense of incompatibility or mutual exclusivity. Indeed, except for extreme partisans in each tradition, most Chinese often embrace both religions with no sense of tension or conflict. How is that possible? In this chapter you are invited to step into the religious world of the Chinese and to see how these two native Chinese religions both rival and complement each other. (Even though Buddhism is the third main religious tradition in China, we only give passing notice to it in light of its alien origin and its totally different worldviews; see Chapter 5 for a complete treatment of Buddhism.) By focusing on the teachings, his- tory, and practices of Confucianism and Daoism, we can appreciate the true religious nature of the two traditions as well, even though in content and expression they may differ from most other world religions. THE TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM It should be observed from the outset that before Confucianism and Daoism arose, an ancient religion already existed in China. This ancient Chinese religion took shape no later than 1600 B.C.E., fully a thousand years prior to the rise of the two traditions. In fact, both Confucianism and Daoism may be regarded as two divergent extensions or outgrowths of this ancient Chinese religion, with the former focusing on human social relationship, whereas the latter emphasizes individual physical and spiritual well- being. In order to understand the religious nature and practice of Confucianism and Daoism, therefore, this ancient Chinese religion needs to be examined first. Ancient Chinese Religious Views The Book ofChanges, the Yijing (I Ching, traditionally believed to have been compiled by the end of the second millennium B.C.E.) represents the earliest expression of the Chinese religious mindset. It conveys a worldview that has been described as "organis- mic,"2 meaning that every single component of the cosmos belongs to an organic whole and that all the component parts interact with one another in a continuous self- generating process. Unlike the foundational texts ofmost religions, the Book ofChanges does not include a creation myth. This absence of a creation myth may be attributed to the dominance of the spirit of honoring ancestors in China since antiquity. When most of the spirits who populate the supernatural world are former human beings who share the same qualities as the living, the sense of mystery and "otherness" of a creator The Teachings of Confucianism and Daoism 249 being may be difficult to envision. Instead, from an original state of "undifferentiated chaos" (hundun),3 two polar yet complementary energies known as qi ("breath," "energy," or "force") emerged. One is called yang (literally the south-facing, sunny side of a mountain) and the other yin (the north-facing, shady side of a mountain). Representing all binary entities and concepts (such as day and night, male and female, hot and cold), yang and yin interact and alternate ceaselessly to form a continuum or spectrum, generating the myriad elements of the creation. In this kind of a worldview, nothing exists outside the cosmos; therefore, everything is subject to its operating principles.