AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT AGRICULTURE AS A TOOL OF SETTLEMENT: A POLITICAL ECOLOGY AND ECONOMY ANALYSIS OF ISRAELI AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT by WILLIAM DOUGLAS THOMSON A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science to the Department of Landscape Design and Ecosystems Management of the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences at the American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon September, 2016 i AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT Thesis release form Student Name: ______Thomson_____William______________Douglas_______________ Last First Middle Master’s Thesis Master’s Project Doctoral Dissertation I authorize the American University of Beirut to: (a) reproduce hard or electronic copies of my thesis, dissertation, or project; (b) include such copies in the archives and digital repositories of the University; and (c) make freely available such copies to third parties for research or educational purposes. I authorize the American University of Beirut, three years after the date of submitting my thesis, dissertation, or project, to: (a) reproduce hard or electronic copies of it; (b) include such copies in the archives and digital repositories of the University; and (c) make freely available such copies to third parties for research or educational purposes. __________________________________________________ Signature Date This form is signed when submitting the thesis, dissertation, or project to the University Libraries iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks to Dr. Zurayk for our long insightful conversations, Dr. Riachi for the material and understanding of political aspects water systems in this work, and to all the friends who provided support during the writing of this study. Also thank you to those at the Union of Agricultural Work Committees, the Applied Research Institute of Jerusalem, And Middle East Children’s Alliance for help with resources and contacts. My recognition and gratitude also goes to the Institute for Palestine Studies library and Columbia Center for Palestine Studies Libraries for use of their collections. iv AN ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS OF William Douglas Thomson for Master of Science Major: Environmental Science and Ecosystems Management Title: Agriculture as a Tool of Settlement: A Political Ecology and Economy Analysis of Israeli Agricultural Development Israel is often praised for its agricultural and water model, and has used this recognition to better its international standing. However, this takes a historically shallow and uncritical look at the development of Israeli agriculture. Throughout its development Israel’s agricultural and water systems have been built off systemic Palestinian land confiscation, water grabs, and diminishing Palestinian agriculture. This development is not accidental, but the basis of the agricultural development of the Israeli state and pre-state formation. This study takes a historical and ecological look at Israeli agricultural development, how it has changed throughout the history of the Zionist project and the state of Israel, and how it has impacted the socio-ecosystems and landscape of Palestine. To do this, this study uses a multifaceted framework combining food regime theory of global agricultural markets, water paradigms on the sanctioned discourse of water management, and the ideas of settler colonial studies and the shared narratives and strategies of settler states. Using this framework, it then dissects the history of the Zionist and Israeli agricultural settlement into five periods, based on the changing modes and methods of this settlement development and analyzes agricultural development within these timeframes. It then looks at the impacts of this agricultural development on Palestinian socio-ecosystems and landscapes such as changes in patterns of tenancy, water systems, agricultural and grazing systems, and land cover/land use. From this research this study asserts and concludes that throughout its history Israeli agricultural development’s main use and goal was as method to gain, hold, and settle the land of Palestine. Also this large-scale agricultural settlement, clearing, and transforming the previous forms of land use and environmental interaction, radically impacted the socio- ecosystems and landscape of Palestine. While the place of agricultural settlement has changed, shifted, and has fallen from its place as the privileged and preferred mode of settlement, it continues to be used within Israeli settlement strategies. v CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………….iv ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………v TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………….vi FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………….xii ACRONYMS................................................................................................................xiii I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………14 A. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1. FOOD REGIMES………………………………………….………..18 2. WATER PARDADIGMS……………………………………………20 3. SETTLER COLONIAL NARRATIVES AND STRATEGIES…......21 B. Methodology…………………………………………………………………26 II. THE LANDSCAPE AND ECONOMY TO BE SETTLED: PALESTINE BEFORE THE BRITISH MANDATE……………………28 vi III. FROM PRIVATE PLANTATIONS TO STRATEGIC LAND ACQUISITION 1880s-1929 A. MOSHAVA PLANTATIONS AND PRIVATE AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT………………………………………………………………………36 B. INTRODUCTION OF THE MOSHAV AND KIBBUTZ FORMS………...39 C. SHARING NOTES ON SETTLEMENT……………………………………43 D. EARLY ZIONIST WATER DEVELOPMENT……………………………..46 E. SIGNS OF CHANGE………………………………………………………..47 F. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION………………………………………….49 IV. FROM THE KIBBUTZ AGRI-SOLDIER TO THE FAMILY BASED MOSHAV 1930-1950 A. THE COMMISSIONS……………………………………………………….53 B. THE RESPONSE…………………………………………………………….55 C. MOSHAV AND KIBBUTZ COMPETITION AND EXPANSION………...58 D. THE ARAB REVOLT AND MANDATORY AND ZIONIST RESPONSE ……………………………………………………………………………….59 E. NARRATIVES OF WATER ABUNDANCE AND THE BUILDING OF WATER INFRASTRUCTURE……………………………………….……………..63 F. AGRICULTURAL SOLDIERS AND THE EXPANDING KIBBUTZ….…67 G. KIBBUTZ DECLINE AND MOSHAV RISE………………………………73 H. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION………………………………………….74 vii V. MOSHAV AND FAMILY FARM SETTLEMENT TO THE FALL OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT 1950-1977 A. MOSHAV EXPANSION AND PRODUCTION……………………………80 B. THE CONTINUED PLACE OF THE KIBBUTZ…………………………...85 C. EXPANDING STATE WATER DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGING NARRATIVES AROUND WATER………………………………………...............86 D. AFFORESTATION AND AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT: COMPLEMENTARY TOOLS………………………………………………………90 E. CONSOLIDATION AND RATIONALIZATION OF LEGAL SYSTEMS…………………………………………………………………………...93 F. LEGAL CONSOLIDATION AND THE EXPANSION OF WATER PROJECTS………………………………………………………………………….95 G. CHALLENGES TO THE PRIVILEGED PLACE OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT AND ITS USE AFTER 1967……………………………………..97 H. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION………………………………………106 VI. RURBAN CHANGE AND THE CONTINUED DECLINE OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT 1977-2005 A. NEW SETTLEMENT PLANS AND THE LIBERALIZATION OF SETTLEMENT…………………………………………………………………..112 B. EVENTS WITHIN THE DECLINE OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT……..……………………………………………………………117 C. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION………………………………………126 viii VII. NEW AGRICULTURAL SETTLERS, WATER TECHNOLOGIES, ENVIRONMENTAL SHIFTS, AND THE CONTINUED USE OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT, 2005- TODAY A. CONDITIONS FOR CONTINUED AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT……………………………………………………………………..132 B. CHARACTERISTICS OF RECENT AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT GROWTH…………………………………………………………………………..136 C. RECENT AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT GROWTH IN THE WEST BANK………………………………………………………………………………138 D. RECENT AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT GROWTH IN THE GOLAN HEIGHTS…………………………………………………………………………..144 E. RECENT AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT GROWTH IN THE NAQAB AND GALILEE……………………………………………………………………146 F. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSION………………………………………153 VIII. IMPACTS OF ISRAELI AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT ON PALESTINIAN SOCIO-ECOSYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES……….......................................................................................158 ix IX. DEPEASANTIZATION AND CHANGES IN VARIED FORMS OF AGRICULTURAL LAND TENURE A. MANDATE POLICY, AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT, AND MUSHA’A TENURE……………………………………………………………………………160 B. THE PLACE OF TENURE WITHIN PALESTINIAN SOCIO- ECOSYSTEMS…………………………………………………………….............166 X. CHANGING WATERSCAPES A. OVERDEVELOPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND DRAINAGE OF WETLANDS………………………………………………………………………170 B. THE EXAMPLE OF THE HULA WETLANDS…………………………172 C. OVERDEVELOPMENT AND OVEREXPLOITATION OF WATER RESOURCES………………………………………………………………………176 D. AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION………………………………………….183 XI. CHANGES WITHIN PALESTINIAN AGRARIAN LIVELIHOODS AND PRODUCTION A. ZIONIST AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT AND MANDATE POLICIES IN AGRARIAN CHANGE………………………………………………………185 B. SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT AND AGRARIAN CHANGE……………………………………………...........192 C. AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT’S ROLE IN CHANGING BEDOUIN LIVELIHOODS…………………………………………………………………196 D. IMPACTS FROM CHANGING BEDOUIN LIVELIHOOD PATTERNS………………………………………………………………………199 XII. FROM WHEAT AND OLIVES TO FODDER AND PINE: CHANGES IN LAND COVER/LAND USE A. LAND COVER/ LAND USE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENT OVER DEPOPULATED VILLAGES………………………….203 B. LAND COVER/ LAND USE CHANGE IN BEDOUIN AREAS………..212 x XIII. CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS…………………………216 XIV. APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………….219 XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………223 xi FIGURES Figures Page 1.1 Theoretical Framework 25 2.1 Topography of Palestine 29 2.2 Water Resources in Palestine 31 3.1 Zionist Agricultural Settlement 1922 39 3.2 Synthetic Fertilizer Import 43 3.3 Mandate Border with Water Resources 47 4.1