The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University “As Long as They Don’t Bury Me Here” Social Relations of Poverty in a Southern African Shantytown by Inge Tvedten Town Cape of University Revised Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Department of Social Anthropology UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN April 2008 Town Cape of University Acknowledgements This project has been long in the making. After applied development work in four slum-areas in the town of Oshakati in northern Namibia over a period of ten years, I decided in 2001 to embark on a PhD-project to try to better understand the lives and coping strategies of the poorest and most destitute parts of the population in these areas. The idea was supported by my employer Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), and by the Norwegian Research Council that gave me a three year research grant. Presenting a first draft of the thesis at the Department of Anthropology of the University of Cape Town (UCT) in 2003, I was invited to submit the thesis there. This seemed to me like a good idea, making it possible to relate to a department close to my geographical area and topics of interest in sub-Saharan Africa’s most reputable university. UCT also accepted a two year leave of absence when I was working in Mozambique in 2004 and 2005, partly on issues of poverty. Returning to CMI in early 2006, I was given sufficient leeway in-between evaluations to finish the thesis as it now stands. Town A number of people have given me invaluable support in the process. I would first of all like to thank my supervisors AssociateCape Professor Andrew “Mugsy” Spiegel and Associate Professor Fiona Ross for their constructive comments and patience. Professor Aud Talle from the Universityof of Oslo gave me valuable comments and encouragements in the initial phase of the project. CMI Director Gunnar Sørbø has given me sufficient space to work on the thesis, despite its economic implications for the institute. Akiser Pomuti and Selma Nangulah of the University of Namibia (UNAM) have been my two main friends and collaborators in the field and spent hours discussing the issues at hand. Christa Schier, also of UNAM, has done the data processing.University Lazarus Hangula, Sakki Nkembua, Daniel Kashupi, Herta Pomuti, Mono Mupotola, Martha Naanda, Frieda Iigonda and Gabriel Daniel have also supported my work at various stages and in various ways. And I benefited from feedback from colleagues during presentations of a first draft of the thesis at the departments of anthropology at the universities of Namibia, Cape Town, Stellenbosch, Western Cape and Bergen. Last but not least, I would like to thank the people in Oshoopala, Uupindi, Oneshila and Evululuku for their time and patience during my many stays in Oshakati. i Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... II LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ....................................................................................IV ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... V 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 FOCUS OF STUDY .................................................................................................................................. 5 POVERTY IN ANTHROPOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 12 ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................................................ 16 POSITIONING MYSELF......................................................................................................................... 19 RESEARCH METHODS ......................................................................................................................... 21 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................................... 24 2. THE MAKING OF OSHAKATI AND ITS SHANTYTOWNS .............................................. 27 COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS .................................................................................................................... 29 WAR AND ATROCITIES ....................................................................................................................... 34 OSHAKATI – `A PLACE WHERE PEOPLE MEET´ .................................................................................. 39 Moving to Town ............................................................................................................................ 41 Urban Complexity ......................................................................................................................... 43 Shanty Relationships ..........................................................................................................Town ........... 46 Shanty Poverty at Independence ................................................................................................... 49 3. GLOBAL SPACE AND URBAN PLACE ................................................................................ 51 FLOWS OF THE STATE ......................................................................................................................... 53 FLOWS OF THE MARKET ..................................................................................................................... 60 FLOWS OF THE MEDIA ........................................................................................................................Cape 66 DEMOCRACY COMES TO TOWN ..........................................................................................................of 70 4. THE SHANTY POPULATION AND INEQUALITIES ......................................................... 75 POPULATION AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................ 80 MATERIAL CONDITIONS ..................................................................................................................... 85 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................................... 91 5. SOCIAL RELATIONS OF POVERTY .................................................................................... 93 THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS ............................................................................................................. 94 SELF-REPRESENTATIONS .................................................................................................................... 97 6. RURAL LINKSUniversity ................................................................................................................... ...... 108 URBAN-RURAL LINKS ...................................................................................................................... 110 The Better-Off ............................................................................................................................. 112 The Poor ..................................................................................................................................... 114 Age and Gender .......................................................................................................................... 117 RURAL-URBAN LINKS ...................................................................................................................... 120 DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY ......................................................................................................... 124 7. URBAN CONNECTIONS ........................................................................................................ 131 THE COSMOPOLITANS ...................................................................................................................... 133 THE STRADDLERS ............................................................................................................................. 139 Men Straddlers ............................................................................................................................ 139 Women Straddlers ....................................................................................................................... 142 THE SHANTY LOCALISTS .................................................................................................................. 145 Localised Men ............................................................................................................................. 146 Localised Women ........................................................................................................................ 149 Social Isolation ..........................................................................................................................