The Theory and Practice of Emancipatory Counterterrorism A thesis submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy Sondre Lindahl The National Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies University of Otago 1 Abstract In response to the 9/11 attacks, the US declared a global war on terror to fight and stop terrorists. Immediately, the Global War on Terror was dominated by the use of military force and violence, and replete with nefarious practices such as torture, rendition, targeted killings and mass- surveillance. The military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq have been detrimental to the security of the people living in the region. Ironically, the efforts that were meant to counter and reduce terrorism have resulted in even more terrorism against the West. This thesis takes the conspicuous failures of the Global War on Terror, with violence as a means to counter terrorism, as the starting point for an investigation into an alternative framework for counterterrorism. More specifically, this thesis aims to construct a counterterrorism approach that is rooted in the notion of emancipation. This thesis draws on Constructivism, Critical Theory, Critical Security Studies, Critical Terrorism Studies, and Peace and Conflict Studies to construct an ideal-type model of counterterrorism. This model constitutes a radical rethinking of the ontology, epistemology and policy agenda of counterterrorism compared to the dominant models of counterterrorism. In particular, the model holds an explicit view on the need for means/ends consistency – a position that leads the thesis to reject the use of violence in counterterrorism. With the construction of the ideal-type model, this thesis shows that it is theoretically possible to offer a non-violent, emancipatory alternative to the violence-based War on Terror. In addition, it conducts an analysis of Norwegian counterterrorism which reveals that many aspects of the ideal-type model are already practiced by a Western state. This is essential because it indicates that emancipatory counterterrorism is practically feasible. Key words: Terrorism, Counterterrorism, Security, Emancipation, Critical Terrorism Studies, Norway 2 Acknowledgments We are as we are because we got that way. A PhD, I suspect, is one of those projects or major events in one’s life that invites reflection on who we are, and how we got to be this way. As such, I count myself to be incredibly fortunate and privileged for a number of reasons. First, I am incredibly fortunate to have a family that has always supported me, be it in sports, academia, music or just life. I was told from an early age not to shy away from challenges, but to embrace them. Looking back, it is easy to see how important and influential that advice has been. I think my parents had concerns about my future when I had to be isolated from the rest of the class in primary school because I talked too much. Still, I was not pressured, but allowed to mature. I do hope this PhD is evidence that it turned out alright in the end. Second, I am incredibly privileged to have a supervisor, a mentor, but also a good friend in Richard Jackson. Academically, a major reason for how I got to be the way I am is due to him. I had no prior knowledge of Critical Terrorism Studies when I arrived at Aberystwyth University in Wales in 2011, a few months after the Breivik-attacks in Oslo that killed 77 people. I had signed up for the more traditional strategic studies when I randomly picked up a leaflet on Critical Terrorism Studies. It is hard to describe this experience without making it sound like a cliché, but it was a true revelation. I remember thinking, ‘how can it be otherwise?’ I decided to take Richard’s paper, the last CTS class at Aberystwyth. The possibility of doing a PhD with him in New Zealand came up while having drinks after a movie night. Five years later, that circle is complete, although I hope to continue to work with Richard for many years to come. Third, I am incredibly fortunate to have met so many great and interesting people during my time in Dunedin, New Zealand. Abbey College has provided a stimulating and interesting atmosphere for me, and it is where I have met some of my best friends. It seems unfair to single any one out, and so in no particular order I would like to thank George, Sandra, Natasha, Shobhit, Andrew, Claudia, Bryce, Geoff, Sandeep, Greg, Stephan, Evie, Vegar, Kan, Charles, John, Saemyi and Hazel for all making my life interesting and joyful in various ways. I would also like to thank the people at the National Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies for contributing to an inclusive and academically stimulating environment. 3 Fourth, and most importantly, I am incredibly fortunate and privileged to have grown up with an uncle who for a kid was a true hero. Many of my childhood memories involve him teaching me how to fish, constructing a mini-golf course on the lawn for me, or making wooden swords for my third-grade presentation on the Viking-age. He was a great songwriter and performer, who preferred to remain close to the local community instead of chasing national recognition and success. His songs will always occupy a special place in my heart. For my family and I, but also the local community, he was a constant source of creativity which will be dearly missed. My uncle did not live to see this project completed. He passed away a few months before I submitted this thesis. I shall never be able to thank him for all he meant to me, and my family, but I do feel so very grateful, fortunate and privileged to have had him in my life. So, uncle, this one’s for you! 4 Contents Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 8 Introduction: Terrorism, Counterterrorism and War on Terror .......................................................... 8 The Field of Terrorism Studies........................................................................................................... 22 Research Question, Theoretical Framework and Methodology ....................................................... 27 Theoretical Approach ........................................................................................................................ 32 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 35 Analysing the Discourse ................................................................................................................ 39 Interviews ...................................................................................................................................... 41 Structure of the study ....................................................................................................................... 42 Chapter 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 44 Counterterrorism Models.................................................................................................................. 45 The War Model .............................................................................................................................. 48 Terrorism as Warfare Pre-9/11 ................................................................................................. 52 Terrorism as War post-9/11: The Global War on Terror ........................................................... 55 The War Model Revisited .......................................................................................................... 57 The Criminal Justice Model ............................................................................................................... 60 Non-Violent Responses ..................................................................................................................... 62 The Empirical Literature .................................................................................................................... 65 Norwegian Counterterrorism ........................................................................................................ 67 Discussion: Main findings and Limitations of the Existing Literature ............................................... 69 Conclusion: Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................................... 73 Chapter 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 75 Ontology, Epistemology and Constructivism .................................................................................... 76 Ontology: What can we know? ..................................................................................................... 76 Constructivism: Seizing the Middle Ground .................................................................................. 78 Minimal Foundationalism .............................................................................................................. 80 Epistemology: How Can We Know? .............................................................................................. 81 Constructivism – What is it Good For? .......................................................................................... 87 The Normative Function of Knowledge ............................................................................................