RE-EVALUATING GENDER ROLES AND REVOLUTIONS: CASES OF UNEXPECTED UTILITIES Walter T. CASEY ........................................................................................................................ “BETTER” RATHER THAN “MORE” DEMOCRACY? CITIZENS’ PERCEPTIONS OF DIRECT VS. REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY IN A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Cirila TOPLAK ........................................................................................................................ IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMON EUROPEAN ENERGY POLICY IN THE YEARS 2007–2011 Goran FLORIDAN ........................................................................................................................ WHAT DO CRISIS AND THE MILITARY SYSTEM HAVE IN COMMON? Vladimir PREBILIČ ........................................................................................................................ COMPARISON OF ELECTORAL MANIFESTOS’ ISSUE STRUCTURES IN CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES – THE METHODOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Samo KROPIVNIK ........................................................................................................................ JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS 2 EDITORIAL TEAM General Editor General Editor Miro Haček Peter Csányi ............................................................ ............................................................ Faculty of social sciences Faculty of Political and Social Sciences University of Ljubljana University in Sladkovicovo Kardeljeva ploščad 5 Richterova ul. 1171 Ljubljana, Slovenia Sladkovicovo, Slovakia [email protected] [email protected] Assistant Editor Simona Kukovič ............................................................ Faculty of social sciences University of Ljubljana Kardeljeva ploščad 5 Ljubljana, Slovenia [email protected] ...................................................................................... JCP uses two-sided peer review process before publication. Those wishing to submit papers should send their e-version to either of the General Editors at one of the addresses above in compliance with the Submission Guidelines. The views expressed are neither those of either of co-publishers. Authors retain sole copyright. Articles appearing in JCP are abstracted and indexed in JournalSeek, EBSCO, ProQuest Political Science, International Bibliography of Social Sciences (IBSS), UlrichsWeb, International Political Science Abstracts (IPSA) and Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). EDITORIAL BOARD Rastislav Tóth, University in Sladkovicovo, Slovakia Gary Aguiar, South Dakota State University, USA Davor Boban, University of Zagreb, Croatia Marjan Brezovšek, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Reuben Wong, National University of Singapore, Singapore Irena Bačlija, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Kenneth Ka-Lok Chan, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China Lars Johannsen, Aarhus University, Denmark Vladimir Prebilič, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Nebojša Vladislavljević, University of Belgrade, Serbia Rudolf Kucharčík, University of Economics Bratislava, Slovakia Michael Tkacik, Stephen F. Austin State University, USA CO-PUBLISHERS University in Sladkovicovo, Faculty of Political and Social Sciences Richterova ul. 1171, 925 21 Sladkovicovo, Slovakia Centre for analysis of administrative-political processes and institutions University of Ljubljana, Faculty of social sciences Kardeljeva ploščad 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia DESIGN CAAPPI, Ljubljana. Journal of Comparative Politics is published twice a year, in January and July. JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 RE-EVALUATING GENDER ROLES AND REVOLUTIONS: CASES OF UNEXPECTED UTILITIES Walter T. CASEY ............................................................................................................................ 30 "BETTER" RATHER THAN "MORE" DEMOCRACY? CITIZENS' PERCEPTIONS OF DIRECT VS. REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY IN A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Cirila TOPLAK ............................................................................................................................ 43 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMON EUROPEAN ENERGY POLICY IN THE YEARS 2007–2011 Goran FLORIDAN ............................................................................................................................ 61 WHAT DO CRISIS AND THE MILITARY SYSTEM HAVE IN COMMON? Vladimir PREBILIČ ............................................................................................................................ 81 COMPARISON OF ELECTORAL MANIFESTOS' ISSUE STRUCTURES IN CONTEMPORARY DEMOCRACIES – THE METHODOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Samo KROPIVNIK ............................................................................................................................ PARTICIPATE For further information on submissions, please consult the guidelines at http://www.jofcp.org. JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS 4 RE-EVALUATING GENDER ROLES AND REVOLUTIONS: CASES OF UNEXPECTED UTILITIES Walter T. CASEY1 ………………………………………………………………………………… Women have been a contributing factor of modern revolutions since at least the American Revolution against Great Britain. Yet too often most descriptions and analyses of revolution relegate women to a supporting role, or make no mention of women’s involvement at all. This work differs from prior efforts in that it will explore one possible explanation for the successes of three revolutions based upon the levels of women’s support for those revolutions. An analysis of the three cases (Ireland, Russia, and Nicaragua) suggests a series of hypotheses about women's participation in revolution and its importance to revolutions' success. Key words: Women, Revolution, Regime Violence, Frustration-Aggression. 1 INTRODUCTION In this study I explore the relationship between sex (gender) and revolution. Specifically, I posit that the higher the ratio of women to men in a revolutionary organization, the more likely the success of that organization. This theory derives from an ocular examination of the successes and failures of revolutionary movements in the twentieth century. Casual observation suggests that several successful revolutions, that is, those that overturned the previous order(s) and established a new order, had a relatively high ratio of active female combatants and female non-combatant support. The same observation also suggests failed revolutions had relatively low (or non- existent) levels of female participation within the revolutionary movements’ structure and organization. Beyond relatively few and scattered case studies of individual events and nations, work of this sort has not been published.2, 3, 4 While the evidence is difficult to obtain, supporting data do exist. The greatest problem in studying this issue is delineation of terminology and precision of definition. What 1 Assistant Professor of Political Science, SCORE Research Fellow, BES Fellow, Texas A&M University, CELA, 7101 University Drive, Texarkana, Texas 75503. 2 Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988). 3 Carol Andreas, When Women Rebel (Westport, CT: Lawrence-Hill, 1990). 4 Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (New York: Basic Books, 1987). JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS 5 constitutes a revolution? At what point is success assured? What is a combatant or non-combatant? And, what is the threshold ratio that sets successes apart from failures? I address these issues in the next section. I suggest that a revolutionary organ becomes more “radical” or revolutionary by merely including women. In the cases examined, the established orders allowed little female political participation, and social equality was token or non-existent. On the other hand, the equality given to females within a revolutionary movement tends towards greater parity and equity than that within the social order being assailed. This is, in and of itself, a revolutionary concept for many societies and states. And unless women desired greater levels of equality, and were frustrated by the state and/or society, such inclusion could not occur. When an obstacle is placed in one path, many may choose another path. This illustrates the dilemma facing enlightened women in a repressive society or state: whether to remain at a standstill, or to choose a novel and revolutionary approach to their problems. The underlying suggestion is that some women who chose the path of revolution may also have had an ulterior motive for wishing its’ success. The countries and/or rebellions and revolutions that are examined are Ireland, 1926–1921, and 1969–present; Russia, 1917–1921; and Nicaragua, 1977–1983. I also mention that certain revolutions are specifically excluded: the Iranian of 1979, and similar theocratic fundamentalist coups worldwide. I explain these omissions further in the next section. The data used are drawn from the government archives of those countries, and/or from the revolutionary organizations’ archives, letters, and other material. Some of the data may seem suspect, especially when addenda and “new” or “lost” data are included. Where no data exist from states or other internal organs, appropriate social science indicators drawn from international sources are used. My methodology, as indicated in the title, is simple comparative analysis. No extensively sophisticated data analysis methods are used, as there are no available data of sufficient scope and quality for such systematic analysis. Further, such methods do not seem necessary to the scope of this work. Ocular