A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Management and Motives of Volunteers within Special Olympics Liz Carlin, BSc (Hons), MSc Faculty of Life and Health Sciences Ulster University November 2018 Thesis submitted for the award for Doctor of Philosophy I confirm that the word count of this thesis is less than 100,000 i Table of Contents Table of Contents .................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 1 Dedication .............................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 3 Declaration ............................................................................................................................. 5 Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ 8 List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 10 Motivation ..................................................................................................................................... 10 Background ................................................................................................................................... 11 The research aims and objectives ................................................................................................. 11 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 12 The structure of the thesis ............................................................................................................ 12 Chapter 1: Volunteerism .......................................................................................................... 18 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 18 1.2 Defining elements of volunteering ................................................................................. 18 1.2.1 Volunteerism defined .......................................................................................................... 18 1.2.2 Altruism ................................................................................................................................ 19 1.3 Volunteer Sector ............................................................................................................ 20 1.3.1 Volunteer numbers .............................................................................................................. 20 1.3.2 Sports Volunteers ................................................................................................................. 22 1.3.3 Volunteer Management in Sport and Recreation ................................................................ 23 1.3.4 Mega Sports Events Volunteers ........................................................................................... 24 1.4 Motivation ...................................................................................................................... 27 1.4.1 Motivation theories ............................................................................................................. 27 1.4.2 Volunteer Motivation........................................................................................................... 30 1.4.3 Volunteer Satisfaction .......................................................................................................... 32 1.4.4 Cultural Variations within motivations to volunteer ........................................................... 34 1.4.5 Measurement of Volunteerism ............................................................................................ 38 ii 1.5 Retention ........................................................................................................................ 41 1.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 44 Chapter 2: Disability ................................................................................................................. 45 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 45 2.2 Defining Disability......................................................................................................... 46 2.2.1 The philanthropic approach ................................................................................................. 47 2.2.2 The biomedical approach ..................................................................................................... 47 2.2.3 The sociological definition ................................................................................................... 48 2.2.4 The economic definition ...................................................................................................... 48 2.2.5 The socio-political definition ................................................................................................ 49 2.3 Models of Disability ...................................................................................................... 50 2.3.1 The Medical Model of Disability .......................................................................................... 50 2.3.2 The Social Model of Disability .............................................................................................. 51 2.3.3 Biopsychosocial model of disability ..................................................................................... 53 2.3.4 Social Relational Model ........................................................................................................ 54 2.4 Classification of disability ............................................................................................. 55 2.5 History of disability legislation ...................................................................................... 59 2.6 Disability & Health ........................................................................................................ 62 2.6.1 Barriers of disability ............................................................................................................. 62 2.6.2 Employment ......................................................................................................................... 63 2.6.3 Physical Activity .................................................................................................................... 64 2.7 Disability Sport .............................................................................................................. 66 2.7.1 History of disability sport ..................................................................................................... 66 2.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 70 Chapter 3: The Importance of Volunteers ............................................................................... 72 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 72 3.2 Third Sector Organisations ............................................................................................ 72 3.2.1 Non-profit organisations ...................................................................................................... 75 3.2.2 Not for profit Sports Organisations...................................................................................... 75 3.2.3 Formalisation of the Volunteer process .............................................................................. 77 3.3 Sports Volunteers Numbers ........................................................................................... 79 iii 3.3.1 The Demographics of Sports Volunteers ............................................................................. 80 3.4 Volunteers in Disability Sport ....................................................................................... 81 3.5 Special Olympics ........................................................................................................... 83 3.5.1 Unified Sports....................................................................................................................... 85 3.5.2 Volunteering within Special Olympics ................................................................................. 89 3.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 90 Chapter 4: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 92 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................