Surrogate Scriptures: American Christian Bestsellers and the Bible, 1850-1900 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By John Thomas Acker Graduate Program in English The Ohio State University 2017 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Jared Gardner, Advisor Dr. Elizabeth Hewitt Dr. Hannibal Hamlin Copyrighted by John Thomas Acker 2017 Abstract This dissertation examines four bestselling Christian novels published in the United States between 1850 and 1900: Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe, The Gates Ajar (1868) by Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Ben-Hur (1880) by Lew Wallace, and In His Steps (1896) by Charles Sheldon. These four books reached millions of readers in a time when many Christians refused to read novels at all, helping to launch what is today a $4B Christian merchandise industry. More importantly, amid what Nathan Hatch has called the “democratization of American Christianity,” popular Christian novels offered a measure of cultural unity, despite splintering churches and increasing skepticism. To explain these novels’ literary popularity and religious impact, I approach them as what I call “surrogate Scriptures.” Just as surrogates are both representatives and substitutes, in a sense these novels can both replace the Bible and point readers back to it. All four novels confirm the Bible’s centrality and authority in Christian theology and practice, but they also showcase changing attitudes toward reading, understanding, interpreting, and applying Biblical content. The four novelists I study here stake out very ii different positions on these issues, but they all contribute to a vibrant and fascinating Christian literary culture. Each of my four chapters evaluates one or more of three related theological concepts: revelation, hermeneutics, and exegesis. Chapter 1, on Uncle Tom’s Cabin, examines the role of Bible reading in Augustine St. Clare’s conversion. I show how Stowe transforms the “take and read” scene from St. Augustine’s Confessions to link Bible reading to social action. In Chapter 2 I evaluate intertextuality in The Gates Ajar, in light of the novel’s diary-like structure. I track several of Phelps’ allusions and quotations, and show how she uses a range of artistic and theological resources to offer her readers both comfort and creativity. Next, in Chapter 3 I analyze the Magi’s origin stories in Ben-Hur, in light of doctrines of Christian supersessionism. These narratives, I argue, promote the idea that the Magi’s respective cultures and religions must inevitably give way to Christianity. Finally, Chapter 4 examines the role of writing and ethics in In His Steps. I contend that even though the characters ask “what would Jesus do?” to inform all their ethical decisions, they actively avoid studying or even reading any texts, especially the Bible. Overall, my study contributes to the existing scholarly literature by enriching and complicating our understanding of Christian bestsellers, and of 19th-century attitudes toward reading and applying the Bible. These four novels, though only representing a small portion of 19th-century Christian fiction, demonstrate diverse and sophisticated ideas about reading, faith, and imagination. Christian readers, writers, and publishers approached cultural engagement cautiously, especially with art forms that could distract iii or even mislead believers. Evaluating their strategies in terms of Biblical authority, not just doctrine or content, gives us a flexible and sophisticated framework for understanding a range of Christian fiction, both historical and contemporary. iv To Esther, with all my love. “The Lord hath been good to me in many ways; but thou, Esther, art the sovereign excellence of his favor.” –Ben-Hur v Acknowledgments Many people have helped make this dissertation possible, and I’m both pleased and humbled to acknowledge their support in what has been a long and strenuous journey. First, I benefited greatly from the institutional support of the Department of English at Ohio State University. Dr. Jared Gardner, my thesis advisor, has mentored and encouraged me throughout my PhD, and has taught me a lot about balancing personal and professional responsibilities. My other thesis committee members, Dr. Beth Hewitt and Dr. Hannibal Hamlin, likewise shared their advice and expertise, and challenged me to produce my best work. Dr. Steve Fink suggested the title for this study, offered valuable insight on Chapter 1, and served on my candidacy exam committee. During my MA and PhD coursework, Dr. Susan Williams and Dr. Elizabeth Renker capably advised me and helped me develop my seminar papers and thesis plans. Likewise, Dr. Wendy Hesford, Dr. Eddie Singleton, Dr. Scott DeWitt, and Dr. Jonathan Buehl oversaw my pedagogical training, which not only funded the first four years of my PhD research but helped me secure another teaching job when that funding ran out. I’d also like to thank the excellent Department of English staff, especially our superlative Graduate Coordinator Kathleen vi Griffin. She fielded hundreds of questions and processed endless piles of paperwork to keep the grad program and the department running smoothly. Second, I am grateful for the communities that facilitated my professional and intellectual development, and for those that provided vital social and emotional support throughout my graduate career. The users and administrators at Phinished.org offered a bounty of resources that helped me adjust to graduate school, including daily accountability and a safe space to vent. The Christian Graduate Student Alliance, led by Bob Trube, invited me to deliver several talks about my field and my research, and reminded me that there is a great big university outside the English department. My academic colleagues on the ChristLit and C19 listservs provided timely research advice and stimulating discussion, while discussions with my colleagues in the Editors’ Association of Earth improved my writing skills and broadened my expertise. From 2006 to 2012, my fellow denizens of Denney Hall helped me cope with graduate seminars, office hours, recalcitrant copiers, conference papers, panicked students, Bagel Tuesdays, and all the other little joys of graduate life. At the dissertation stage, feedback from Dr. Chad Allen’s dissertation writing seminar and from a Dissertation Writing Group organized by the OSU Writing Center helped me improve Chapters 1 and 4, respectively. Larry Paarlberg and his staff at the General Lew Wallace Study and Museum generously gave me access to Wallace’s personal library of religious books, which significantly enriched Chapter 3. Larry also introduced me to Wallace scholar Howard Miller, who provided several useful leads on Wallace’s religious views. For Chapter 2, Dr. Shirley Samuels helped me clarify a tricky vii passage in The Gates Ajar, and pointed me toward a valuable essay on the novel. The staff of the OSU Graduate School walked me through the process of completing and formatting my dissertation, while the OSU Libraries provided timely and consistent access to books and other research materials. I’m also grateful to my editing clients, who taught me a lot about organizing arguments and structuring dissertation chapters. My greatest debt, however, is to the members of my dissertation writing group: Anne Langendorfer, Nora McCook, Cate St Pierre, and Marion Wolfe. For the past two years they have helped me set goals, celebrate victories, rail at setbacks, apply to jobs, meet deadlines, and most importantly just keep writing. As Cate put it during one of our group chats, “you guys make me feel so much less alone.” Last but not least, my family has consistently encouraged my intellectual curiosity and supported my academic goals. During my dad’s MA and PhD they showed me how to live on a graduate stipend, and during my own they reminded me that there’s life outside one. They cheerfully tolerated visits and phone calls that were far too sporadic, and they never complained when I interrupted Thanksgiving or Christmas “break” to do battle with a paragraph or two. My cats Chapter and Draft were rather more vocal when my dissertation work delayed their meals, but their companionship made the work far more rewarding. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to my beautiful fiancée Esther. Without her in my life I would never have graduated: her steady faith fuels me, her patient ambition inspires me, and her gracious love gives me far more than I’ll ever deserve. viii Vita 2000................................................................Acker Christian Academy, summa cum laude 2006................................................................B.A., English & Comparative Literature, magna cum laude, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 2008................................................................M.A., English, Ohio State University 2006-2012 .....................................................Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of English, The Ohio State University 2013-2015 .....................................................Instructor, Department of English, Columbus State Community College 2006-present ..................................................Academic & Business Editor, Acker Editing and Consulting ix Publications Review of David Lyle Jeffrey and Gregory Maillet, Christianity and Literature: Philosophical Foundations and Critical Practice. Christianity and Literature 62.1 (Autumn