Burghoorn, Iwanaga, Milwertz & Wang & Milwertz Iwanaga, Burghoorn, This book examines cultural complexities of gender by focusing on gender politics in Asia, with case studies from China, Japan, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand and Gender Malaysia. It is a comprehensive volume that examines multiple aspects of gender politics (in terms of dress, healing, religious ordination, NGO activism, etc.) and brings Politics interdisciplinary approaches of inquiry based on in-depth empirical data. In so doing, this book demonstrates the great diversity in gender politics and women’s strategies to negotiate and in AsiA change gender relations individually or collectively. ‘[A]n excellent introduction to the subject Women Manoeuvring within written in a lively and interesting manner, accessible to a general as well as an academic dominant Gender Orders readership. I would strongly recommend Gender Politics in Asia as a key text for anyone interested in and/or studying gender roles in Asia.’ (Colette Balmain, Buckinghamshire New University) Gender ‘I heartily recommend the book to everybody researching gender questions in Asia and complement the editors for their insightful handling of the theme.’ (Anindita datta, Politics University of delhi) Koudstaal Rob by photographs Cover GeNdering Asia in Edited by a series on gender intersections Asi Wil Burghoorn, A Kazuki Iwanaga, Cecilia Milwertz and Qi Wang www.niaspress.dk Burghoorn_reprint_cover.indd 1 11/05/2011 14:03 GENDER POLITICS IN ASIA Burghoorn_prelims.indd 1 14/3/08 14:43:11 GENDERING ASIA A Series on Gender Intersections Gendering Asia addresses the ways in which power and constructions of gender, sex, sexuality and the body intersect with one another and pervade contemporary Asian societies. The series invites discussion of how people shape their identities as females or males and, at the same time, become shaped by the very societies in which they live. The series is concerned with the region as a whole in order to capture the wide range of understandings and practices that are found in East, Southeast and South Asian societies with respect to gendered roles and relations in various social, political, religious, and economic contexts. Gendering Asia is, then, a multidisciplinary series that explores theoretical, empirical, and methodo- logical issues in the social sciences. Series Editors: Wil Burghoorn, Gothenburg University, Sweden; Cecilia Milwertz, NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, Denmark; and Helle Rydstrøm, Linköping University, Sweden. Contact details and other information (including members of the international advisory board) can be found at: http://www.niaspress.dk. Working and Mothering in Asia Images, Ideologies and Identities Edited by Theresa W. Devasahayam and Brenda S.A. Yeoh Making Fields of Merit Buddhist Female Ascetics and Gendered Orders in Thailand Monica Lindberg Falk Gender Politics in Asia Women Manoeuvring within Dominant Gender Orders Edited by Wil Burghoorn, Kazuki Iwanaga, Cecilia Milwertz and Qi Wang Lost Goddesses The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History Trudy Jacobsen Burghoorn_prelims.indd 2 14/3/08 14:43:11 Gender Politics in Asia Women Manoeuvring within Dominant Gender Orders Edited by Wil Burghoorn, Kazuki Iwanaga, Cecilia Milwertz and Qi Wang Burghoorn_prelims.indd 3 14/3/08 14:50:07 Gendering Asia, No. 3 First published in 2008 by NIAS Press NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Leifsgade 33, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark tel (+45) 3532 950 • fax (+45) 3532 9549 email: [email protected] • website: www.niaspress.dk © NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies 2008 All rights reserved. While copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, copyright in the individual papers belongs to their authors. No paper may be reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission of the author or publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Gender politics in Asia : women manoeuvring within dominant gender orders. - (Gendering Asia) . Women - Asia - Social conditions 2. Sex role - Asia 3. Sex discrimination against women - Asia 4. Women in politics - Asia I. Lundstrom-Burghoorn, Wil, 947- 305.4’2’095 ISBN-3: 978-87-7694-05-7 Typeset by NIAS Press Produced by SRM Production Services Sdn Bhd and printed in Malaysia Burghoorn_prelims.indd 4 14/3/08 14:43:12 Contents Preface vii Kazuki Iwanaga Contributors ix List of Abbreviations xii Introduction Qi Wang, Cecilia Milwertz, Wil Burghoorn and Kazuki Iwanaga . Women, Citizenship and the Politics of Dress in Twentieth-Century Philippines Mina Roces 2. Community-Based Movements of Japanese Women: How Mothers Infiltrate the Political Sphere from Below 43 Mikiko Eto 3. Healing Bodies of Thought: The State of Gender in the Sathya Sai Baba Movement in Malaysia 69 Alexandra Kent 4. Gender and Religious Legitimacy in Thailand 95 Monica Lindberg Falk 5. Consciousness-Raising among and beyond Women’s Movement Activists in China 2 Cecilia Milwertz and Bu Wei 6. Organizing for Change and Empowerment: The Women Mayors’ Association in China 45 Qi Wang 7. ‘No Fire in the Belly’: Women’s Political Role in Singapore 85 Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew Index 27 Burghoorn_prelims.indd 5 14/3/08 14:43:12 Gender Politics in Asia Figures . President Manuel L. Quezon and wife Mrs Aurora Quezon welcome Vice-Presiden Sergio Osmeña and Mrs. Osmeña at Malacañang Palace (930s) 7 .2 Suffragist Dr Encarnacion Alzona in a cartoon by Gat 9 .3 Amorsolo painting 20 .4 Painting of Mrs Marcos by Claudio Bravo 33 .5 President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo takes her oath of office as presi- dent in January 200 36 4. Dhammananada Bhikkhuni, the first Thai Theravada female monk 99 4.2 The American female monk, Bhiksuni Karma Lekshe Tsomo visiting Thai nuns 07 6. Tao Siliang greeting women mayors 57 6.2 WMA membership certificate 58 6.3 Women mayors toasting at the closing reception of the second Economic Class in Guangzhou 70 Tables 7. ‘What I want in life’ 98 7.2 Elements of a good life 99 vi Burghoorn_prelims.indd 6 14/3/08 14:43:12 Preface mong the various regions of the world, Asia is especially interesting for students of democracy. There are several reasons, not least that many Asian countries have committed themselves to implementing Aa form of democratic government in the past few years. Implementation, however, is not simple; this is a vast region characterized by extremely diverse populations and huge gender disparities, a situation that creates enormous challenges for the establishment of balanced political representation. As a result, many countries have adopted affirmative action measures to increase the representation of women and ethnic groups in their parliaments. Perhaps it is no surprise, then, that recent decades have witnessed the rise into politi- cal prominence of many different women in Asia. Corazon Aquino, Benazir Bhutto and Aung Sang Su Yi are just a few examples of women who have struggled to come to power, not always successfully. The ability of a small elite of highly educated, upper-class Asian women to obtain the highest political positions in their country is unmatched else- where in the world. Lower down in the political ‘food chain’, however, the ability of women to exert power in their local communities appears to be far more limited. This situation has prompted more and more scholars to explore the ways in which power and the constructions of gender, sex, sexu- ality and the body intersect with one another and pervade contemporary Asian societies. One has resulted in a series of international conferences on women and politics in Asia. Gendering Asia, the series in which this volume appears, is another manifestation of this increased scholarly interest. Gender Politics in Asia has its origins in and builds on this activity. The volume was first conceived as a result of the first International Conference on Women and Politics in Asia, held in 2003 at Halmstad University in Sweden. The conference examined not only formal channels of participation but also informal channels. Among other matters, then, it concerned itself with women’s exercise of power through these channels, the role of women’s organisations in getting gender issues on the political agenda in different contexts, and the impact of cultural and religious systems on gender and vii Burghoorn_prelims.indd 7 14/3/08 14:43:12 Gender Politics in Asia politics. The conference drew together subject specialists – scholars and activists included – representing a range of professional and national per- spectives on the subject matter. We were truly impressed with the breadth, variety and scholarly value of the papers presented. Unfortunately, it was only possible to select a fraction of the papers presented for inclusion in this volume. The resulting material has been worked and reworked over the years. It is our sincere hope that this collection will contribute to the ongoing research on politics of gender in Asia. Certainly we could not have achieved this final result without significant support from many people. First, the volume builds on the dedication and hard work of the conference organizing committee and tremendous support for the conference received from various people at Halmstad University. Nor could it have been made without the help of academic colleagues based in Europe as well as in Asia, not least (but not only) their scholarship and their expertise. Our thanks, too, go to the authors of individual chapters who so painstakingly endeavoured to work according to a demanding schedule while taking into account the diverse comments from us, the editors. In addition, the project received generous support from various institu- tions and individuals. The conference itself would not have been possible without generous financial support from the Swedish Research Council, the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation, the Swedish Institute, NIAS – Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, the Centre for East and Southeast Asian Studies at Lund University and Halmstad University.