Anthropology in History and the Explanation of Cultural Diversity Chapter Outline The Roots of Canadian Anthropology Capitalism, Colonialism, and the Emergence of “The Field ” o The Key Metaphor of Capitalism o Responses to European Colonialism: The Fur Trade in North America o The Slave and Commodities Trades o “Modernity” o The Colonial Political Economy o Women and Colonization Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter Toward Classifying Forms of Human Society o Evolutionary Typologies: The Nineteenth Century . Thomsen’s “Three-Age System” . Morgan’s “Ethnical Stages” . Reactions against Unilineal Evolutionism o Social Structural Typologies: The British Emphasis . The Classification of Political Structures . Structural-Functional Theory o Attempting to Do without Typologies: Culture Area Studies in North America o Post-Colonial Realities o Locating Cultural Processes in History Studying Human Societies Today Key Points 1. The first anthropology department in Canada was founded at the University of Toronto in 1936 by Thomas McIlwraith. Anthropology in Canada has been influenced by American, British, and French approaches to anthropology. 2. Recent Western history has been characterized by the rise of capitalism. The key metaphor of capitalism is the world as a potential market in which everything—including land, objects, ideas, labour, and human beings—is a commodity to be bought and sold, not just used. Such a view Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition, Fourth Canadian Edition © Oxford University Press Canada, 2018 was unknown in non-capitalist societies before Western contact, even in those with highly de- veloped economic institutions. The European capitalist penetration of non-Western societies was frequently followed by political conquest, which reshaped conquered societies in ways that often resulted in eventual economic exploitation. Colonial empires drew together economically and politically vast and previously unconnected areas of the world. To function intelligibly with- in the capitalist world order, colonized peoples had to begin to see the world as a storehouse of potential commodities. 3. Many populations that early anthropologists came to study did not escape the historical process- es of colonization and incorporation into a capitalist world economy. Numerous Indigenous groups lost their autonomy as attempts were made to integrate them within the new colonial po- litical economy. Many new groups came into existence in the course of commercial and politi- cal contacts between Indigenous populations and Europeans. The continued existence of de- scendants of colonized peoples shows that conquered peoples can actively cope to reshape their own social identities despite oppression and exploitation. 4. After anthropology emerged as a formal discipline in the late nineteenth century, the context of European or Euro-American colonialism was an ever-present reality within which anthropolo- gists had to maneuver. Many hoped that the dismantling of colonial empires after World War II would restore sovereignty and dignity to colonized peoples. However, independence and decol- onization did not free former colonies from deeply entangling colonial ties with their former rulers. These entanglements have, in some cases, persisted for over a hundred years and came to be called neocolonialism. In North America and elsewhere, Indigenous groups continue to seek social justice for the losses they have sustained as a consequence of colonization. 5. Although the colonial setting within which many anthropologists worked must always be taken into account, there is little evidence to suggest that anthropologists who worked in colonial set- tings were trying to further colonial domination. In fact, as demonstrated by Talal Asad, anthro- pological findings were often too specialized to be used by colonial administrators, especially compared to the enormous amount of information supplied to them by merchants, missionaries, and other government functionaries. Also, the motives that led anthropologists to carry out work under colonial conditions were complex and variable. 6. A survey of the typologies used by anthropologists over the past century and a half to make sense of human cultural variation is illuminated by the historical circumstances surrounding con- tact between anthropologists and those with whom they have worked. Depending on an anthro- pologist’s analytical purposes, the same social forms can be classified in different ways. The ear- liest important anthropological typology of forms of human society was proposed by unilineal cultural evolutionists, such as E.B. Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan, in the nineteenth century. Anthropologists who supported unlineal evolution tried to explain contemporary cultural diver- sity by arguing that different examples of society existing in the nineteenth century represented various stages of societal evolution. Every human society either had passed or would pass through the same stages. British anthropologists doing research in colonial settings in the first half of the twentieth century paid attention to the social structural forms of contemporary com- munities and showed how these structures enabled the communities to function successfully over time. They produced a succession of non-evolutionary classifications of human social forms. Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition, Fourth Canadian Edition © Oxford University Press Canada, 2018 7. Following the influence of Franz Boas, who developed an approach of historical particular- ism, North American anthropologists rejected unilineal cultural evolutionism on the grounds that societies could easily borrow cultural forms from one another, thus skipping supposedly universal evolutionary stages. Boasian attention to forms of social and cultural mixing also high- lighted the biological mixing that always takes place when human groups meet, providing a con- text within which biological anthropologists were eventually able to demonstrate the fact that biological races do not exist. Consequently, the aim of much research shifted to making lists of culture traits and mapping the culture areas through which they had spread as a result of cul- tural borrowing. 8. Since the end of colonialism, new classifications have appeared, such as the Cold War division of nation-states into First, Second, Third, and Fourth Worlds, and the contrast between “devel- oped” First World societies and “underdeveloped” Third World societies. While some anthro- pologists were always dissatisfied with these distinctions, they have become increasingly prob- lematic since the end of the Cold War. Although some anthropologists may find typologies use- ful for investigating some issues, classifying forms of human society is not an ultimate goal for most anthropologists today, and this would seem to suggest that an early basis for anthropologi- cal comparison is also disappearing. But a shift in contemporary ethnography to the study of on- going social and cultural processes has led to the emergence of work that focuses on compari- sons of similar processes as they unfold over time in different social and cultural settings. 9. While globalization began during the age of exploration as part of the expansion of market capitalism it has continued to reshape international relationships in many domains. The export and import of human beings to provide services has become a central element of many countries agriculture and service economies. While we often focus on negative aspects of globalization, it can also be demonstrated that it can be a mechanism of human liberation. The detachment of life from territorially based statuses can enhance mobility and opportunity for people that lack territorially based options. 10. The development of advanced science and technology in many modern societies has provided anthropology with many varied and interesting topics of study. Not long ago notions of a cyborg anthropology seemed more like science fiction then sound anthropological research. Today with the expansion of human-computer and human-machine interconnections and interfaces cyborg anthropology faces an ever expanding base of topics for research. These connections touch vir- tually every aspect of modern life influencing education, medicine, politics, business, law, leisure and many others. Key Terms Band A form of social organization that consists of a small group of foragers (usually fewer than fifty people), in which labour is divided according to age and sex, and social relations are highly egal- itarian. Capitalism An economic system dominated by a supply and demand market designed to create cap- ital and profit. Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition, Fourth Canadian Edition © Oxford University Press Canada, 2018 Chiefdom A form of social organization in which the leader (a chief) and the leader’s close relatives are set apart from the rest of society and allowed privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige. Colonialism The cultural domination of a people by larger, wealthier powers. Culture area A geographical region in which cultural traditions share similar culture traits. Culture traits Particular features or parts of a cultural tradition such as a dance, ritual, or style of pottery. Cyborg anthropology Anthropological analysis based on the notion of organism-machine hybrids that attempts to understand the broader implications of human-machine coevolution. Decolonization The withdrawal of a colonial