Beyond MIDI The Handbook of Musical Codes Edited by Eleanor Selfridge-Field The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England Contents Preface xv § Introduction 1 Describing Musical Information 3 1.1 What Is Musical Representation? 3 1.2 Parameters of Musical Information 7 1.3 Purposes of This Handbook 20 1.4 Musical Examples 21 1.5 Code Categories 28 1.6 Notes on Typography 37 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD § Sound-Related Codes (1): MIDI 2 MIDI 41 2.1 What Is MIDI? 41 2.2 Organization of Standard MIDI Files 44 2.3 Time Parameters in Standard MIDI Files 48 2.4 Representation of Musical Attributes in a Standard MIDI File 51 2.5 Examples 55 2.6 MIDI as an Interchange Language 68 WALTER B. HEWLETT AND ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD WITH DAVID COOPER, BRENT A. FIELD, KIA-CHUAN NG, AND PEER SITTER APPENDIX 1 The General MIDI Instrument Specification 71 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD vi CONTENTS 3 MIDI Extensions for Musical Notation (1): NoTAMIDI Meta-Events 73 3.1 The Time-Signature Meta-Event 74 3.2 The Key-Signature Meta-Event 74 3.3 The Clef-Sign Meta-Event 75 3.4 The Verbal Dynamics Meta-Event 75 3.5 The Crescendo/Diminuendo Meta-Event 76 3.6 The Accent Meta-Event 76 3.7 The Slur Meta-Event 77 3.8 The Enharmonic Pitch Meta-Event 78 3.9 The Tempo-Name Meta-Event 79 3.10 Summary 79 KJELL NORDLI 4 MIDI Extensions for Musical Notation (2): Expressive MIDI 80 4.1 The expEvent Message 81 4.2 Isolated Symbols (Encoding Tables 0 and 1) 82 4.3 Extensible Symbols (Encoding Table 2) 86 4.4 Example: The Mozart Trio 88 4.5 Further Comments 97 DAVID COOPER, KIA-CHUAN NG, AND ROGER D. BOYLE 5 MIDI Extensions for Musical Notation (3): MIDIPlus 99 5.1 Enharmonic Notation 99 5.2 Slurs 103 5.3 Other Potential Enhancements for Music Printing 104 WALTER B. HEWLETT 6 MIDI Extensions for Sound Control: Augmented MIDI 105 6.1 Accents 106 6.2 Articulations 106 MAX V. MATHEWS APPENDIX 2 Overview of MIDI Extensions 108 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD CONTENTS vii § Sound-Related Codes (2): Other Codes for Representation and Control 7 Csound 111 7.1 The Orchestra 114 7.2 The Csound Score Language 116 7.3 The Csound Scot Language 129 7.4 General Comments 139 7.5 Further Information 141 DAVID BAINBRIDGE 8 Music Macro Language 143 8.1 Code Description 143 8.2 Example 144 8.3 Using MML Data 145 8.4 Further Information 145 TOSHIAKI MATSUSHIMA 9 The NeXT ScoreFile 146 9.1 File Organization 146 9.2 Example 149 DAVID JAFFE 10 The Radio Baton Conductor Score File 153 10.1 File Organization 154 10.2 Musical Attributes 155 10.3 A Sample Conductor Program File 158 MAX V. MATHEWS viii CONTENTS § Musical Notation Codes (1): DARMS 11 DARMS, Its Dialects, and Its Uses 163 11.1 Canonical DARMS (1): An Introduction 164 11.2 DARMS Dialects for Music Printing 165 11.3 DARMS in Musical Analysis 169 11.4 DARMS Extensions for Special Repertories 170 11.5 Canonical DARMS (2): A Synoptic View 172 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FÏELD 12 DARMS: The Note-Processor Dialect 175 12.1 Global Specifiers 175 12.2 Local Codes 177 12.3 Example 188 12.4 Special Features of DARMS 189 J. STEPHEN DYDO 13 DARMS: The Α-R Dialect 193 13.1 Token Substitutions 194 13.2 Example 195 13.3 New Tokens or Encodings 195 13.4 New Operators 196 13.5 Syntactical Changes to Special Features 198 13.6 Features not Implemented in Α-R DARMS 199 13.7 Further Comments 200 THOMAS HALL 14 DARMS Extensions for Lute Tablatures 201 14.1 Italian Tablature 202 14.2 French Tablature 205 FRANS WIERING 15 DARMS Extensions for Mensural Notation 207 15.1 Pitch 207 15.2 Meter and Duration 208 LYNN M. TROWBRIDGE CONTENTS ix § Musical Notation Codes (2): Other ASCII Representations 16 Common Music Notation 217 16.1 Musical Attributes 218 16.2 File Organization 219 16.3 Example 220 16.4 Further Information 221 BILL SCHOTTSTAEDT 17 MUTEX, MusicTEX, and MUSIXTEX 222 17.1 The M*TEX Family 222 17.2 Standard Features of MUSIXTEX 223 17.3 Attribute Description in MUSIXTEX 224 17.4 Examples 226 17.5 Further Information 231 WERNER ICKING 18 Philip's Music Scribe 232 18.1 Program Description 233 18.2 Code Description 233 18.3 Example 242 18.4 File Organization 244 18.5 Miscellaneous Features 245 18.6 Further Remarks 250 PHILIP HAZEL 19 SCORE 252 19.1 SCORE Input Code 253 19.2 Input File Organization 255 19.3 Parametric-File Object Types and Codes 256 19.4 Output File Formats 269 19.5 Examples 271 19.6 Observations and Further Information 279 LELAND SMITH CONTENTS § Musical Notation Codes (3): Graphical-object Descriptions 20 The LIME Tilia Representation 283 20.1 The Tilia Representation 284 20.2 File Organization 288 203 Examples 289 20.4 File Conversion 291 20.5 Further Information 291 DAVID COTTLE AND LIPPOLD HAKEN 21 The Nightingale Notelist 293 21.1 General Description 294 21.2 Code Description 299 21.3 Example 314 TIM CRAWFORD WITH DONALD BYRD AND JOHN GIBSON § Musical Notation Codes (4): Braille 22 Braille Musical Notation (1): An Overview 321 22.1 Musical Attributes 322 22.2 File Organization 324 22.3 Examples 325 22.4 Comments 330 22.5 Resources and References 330 ROGER FIRMAN 23 Braille Musical Notation (2): Common Signs 333 23.1 Letters of the English Alphabet 333 23.2 One-Cell Signs 335 23.3 Two- and Multiple-Cell Signs 338 23.4 Example 339 BETTYE KROUCK AND SILE O'MODHRAIN CONTENTS xi § Codes for Data Management and Analysis (1): Monophonie Representations 24 The Essen Associative Code: A Code for Folksong Analysis 343 24.1 Means of Representation 344 24.2 The EsAC Framework for Musical Analysis 348 24.3 The EsAC Program Library 352 24.4 Data Interchange 353 24.5 Further Information 357 24.6 Postscript 359 HELMUT SCHAFFRATHI 25 Plaine and Easie Code: A Code for Music Bibliography 362 25.1 Code Description 364 25.2 Sample Encodings 368 25.3 Associated Software 370 25.4 Code Conversions 370 25.5 Further Information 371 JOHN HOWARD § Codes for Data Management and Analysis (2): Polyphonic Representations 26 Humdrum and Kern: Selective Feature Encoding 375 26.1 The Kern Code 377 26.2 File Organization 385 26.3 Examples 386 26.4 User Support 398 DAVID HURON 27 Muse Data: Multipurpose Representation 402 27.1 Composite File Organization 403 27.2 Organization of Data Records 410 27.3 Examples 432 27.4 Comments 445 WALTER B. HEWLETT xii CONTENTS § Representations of Musical Patterns and Processes 28 Encoding of Compositional Units 451 28.1 Code Description 451 28.2 Example 455 28.3 Comments 458 ULF BERGGREN 29 A Score-Segmentation Approach to Representation 459 29.1 Score Segmentation and Data Reduction 460 29.2 Representation Streams for Rhythm and Pitch 461 293 Example 461 29.4 Comments 466 ANDRANICK TANGUIANE § Interchange Codes 30 HyTime and Standard Music Description Language: A Document-Description Approach 469 30.1 SMDL Domains 470 30.2 Basic Elements of Music in the Logical Domain 472 30.3 SGML Markup 473 30.4 Examples 474 30.5 Additional Comments on SMDL 485 30.6 Additional Comments on HyTime 487 30.7 Further Information 489 DONALD SLOAN WITH STEVEN R. NEWCOMB 31 The Notation Interchange File Format: A WiWows-Compliant Approach 491 31.1 Goals and Context 491 31.2 Logical Structures 494 31.3 Physical Structures 497 31.4 Musical Features 500 31.5 Graphic Anomalies 501 31.6 File Organization 504 31.7 Example 507 31.8 Comments and Further Information 511 CINDY GRANDE CONTENTS xiii 32 Standard Music expression: Interchange of Common and Braille Notation 513 32.1 Order of Description of Elements 514 32.2 Description of Symbols 515 32.3 Examples 518 TOSHIAKI MATSUSHIMA APPENDIX 3 Code-Translation Programs 543 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD APPENDIX 4 Codes Supported by Optical Recognition Software 551 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD APPENDIX 5 Proposed Musical Characters in Unicode 553 PERRY ROLAND § Reflections 33 Beyond Codes: Issues in Musical Representation 565 33.1 Representations as Attribute Selections 565 33.2 One Representation, Multiple File Formats 569 33.3 Generalized Representations 571 33.4 Data Generalization vs. Attribute Specification 572 ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD 34 Afterword: Guidelines for New Codes 573 34.1 Choosing an Appropriate Code 574 34.2 Interpretive vs. Value-Neutral Encoding 575 34.3 Single- or Multiple-Pass Encoding 577 34.4 Providing Editorial Additions, Emendations and Remarks 578 34.5 Naming Code Elements 578 34.6 Providing Secondary Parameters of Notes and Chords 579 34.7 Providing Documentation: With, Within, and Without 579 DAVID HALPERIN Glossary 581 EDMUND CORREIA, JR., ELEANOR SELFRIDGE-FIELD, ET AL. Contributors 611 Index 615.