AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF SOCIOCULTURAL ADJUSTMENT AMONG FOUR MAJOR COHORTS AT A THAI UNIVERSITY A Thesis submitted by Assistant Professor Douglas Rhein MA, Mass Communications, Leicester University BS, Psychology, Eastern Michigan University For the award of Doctor of Philosophy 2018 ii Abstract This series of inter-related studies, conducted at Mahidol University International College, intended to gain further insight into the international student adjustment experiences among four ethnic groups; Japanese, Korean, African American and Burmese in Thai higher education. The identification and description of positive and negative student sociocultural adjustment to international programs in Thailand has direct implications for program design, curriculum development, participant recruitment, marketing and ultimately to the assessment of student needs and goals. To that end, this research was informed by a pilot study which was designed with the intent of identifying which adjustment issues are of primary impact and which groups of international students experience the greatest adjustment demands. This was necessary as there are approximately four hundred international students attending MUIC each academic year from over fifty countries of origin. The pilot study employed Ward Sociocultural Adjustment Scale and confirmed the previous research which claimed that Western (White) students report the least adjustment barriers during the adjustment process. This led to the selection of the four ethnicities for further investigation using qualitative measures. In-depth interviews were conducted with sixty participants (fifteen from each ethnic group) to gain further insight into their adjustment experiences in Thailand. The data from these interviews was then analyzed and five themes emerged in the positive experience category for all of the ethnic groups involved in the research. However, the themes which emerged regarding the adjustment barriers were not uniformly agreed upon. The participants reported that their ethnic background was a major factor in their adjustment experiences in Thailand. Each group of participants reported different experiences of racialized or ethnically based interactions with the host nationals. Given the insufficient accumulation of knowledge on the stages of adjustment or the range of factors involved in student sociocultural adjustment to international higher education within the Thai context, the primary purpose of this series of studies is to explore areas of higher education where scarce information is available. The choice of ethnicity as a primary area of exploration in relation to international student sociocultural adjustment experience is intended to avoid the homogenization of all international student experiences. Ethnicity and one’s ethnic identity was chosen, as opposed to race or nationality, as ethnic identity is a multidimensional concept which is based on an individual’s identification with a group’s i behavior, history, culture, belief system and tradition with little importance being placed on national identity or country of birth. As previous research on international students tended to homogenize the American, European or Asian identity, this series of studies eschews such an approach and relies on each of the ethnic groups to share their perceptions of the international higher education system in Thailand. To that aim, the research questions for this series of studies were: 1) How did international higher education in Thailand develop and evolve into the primarily Thai student centered yet expensive and elitist educational segment it is today? 2) How are the international visiting students from the four selected ethnicities adjusting to this system and perceiving their experiences in the new environment? This series of studies makes an original contribution to knowledge in adjustment research by providing a thorough analysis of the experiences of ethnic group’s adjustment to Thailand. The results of this investigative analysis of the causes of student adjustment issues can be further utilized in areas within the host country, will benefit multiple stakeholders including students, international relations departments and university programs recruiting international students as well as in orientation sessions prior to student departure from their home country. Additionally, the process of eliminating or decreasing stressors should create a more positive learning and travel experience for inbound students. ii Certification of Thesis This Thesis is entirely the work of Douglas Rhein except where otherwise acknowledged, with the sole authorship of the papers presented as a Thesis by Publication undertaken by the Student. The work is original and has not previously been submitted for any other award, except where acknowledged. Dr Sang-Soon Park _________________________________ _____________________ Principal Supervisor Date Dr Jonathan Green _________________________________ _____________________ Associated Supervisor Date iii Statement of Contribution The following articles in this thesis were completed solely by the author: Rhein D. (2016). Westernisation and the Thai higher education system: past and present. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 48(3), 261-274. Top 62% journal 2016 Impact Factor 0.565 and SNIP 0.595 doi.org/10.1080/00220620.2016.1184133 Rhein, D. (2018). International Students in Asia: Shifting From Universalistic Models to an Ethnicity Matters Approach, manuscript submitted and accepted pending revisions Journal of Research in International Education Top 51% journal 2017 Impact Factor 0.545 and SNIP 0.721 DOI Rhein, D. (2018). Sociocultural adjustment and coping strategies of Korean and Japanese students in a Thai international college. International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 14(1), 57-78. Top 60% journal 2017 Impact Factor 0.382 and SNIP 0.312 doi.org/10.21315/ijaps2018.14.1.3 Rhein, D. (2018). African American student sociocultural adjustment to Thai international higher education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 11(2), 1-14. Top 75% journal 2017 Impact Factor 1.088 and SNIP 0.916 doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2018.1440349 Rhein, D. (2016). Burmese sociocultural adjustment to Thai international programs: An analysis of the impact of historical revisionism. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 15(3), 189-208. Top 63% journal 2016 Impact Factor 0.517 and SNIP 0.874 doi.org/10.1007/s10671-016-9192-9 List of articles not included in entirety in the thesis which were used as the basis for the introduction and summary of the papers above: Rhein, D. (2018). Positive Aspects of Study Abroad Programs in Thailand: Students Perceptions of Events. Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, 4(4), 492-526. Rhein, D. (2017). International higher education in Thailand: Challenges within a changing context. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 8(3), 281-298. Rhein, D. (2013). The workplace challenge: cross-cultural leadership in Thailand. International Studies in Educational Administration, 41(1), 41-55. Rhein D. (2013). The researcher you are is the person you are. Interdisciplinary Studies Journal, 13(2), 77-91. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank my advisors Sang-Soon Park EdD and Jonathan Green PhD for their agreement to work with me at the latter stages of this project. They have been instrumental in the completion of this work and consistently provided guidance and advice. I am grateful for their efforts. I am indebted to Mahidol University International College which has supported my academic and professional pursuits for the better part of two decades. In this case, the administration was of great support in terms of providing the funds for this degree through an internal professional development fund. Lastly I would like to thank my parents and my family for their love, patience and support. v List of Figures Figure 1. Stages of cross-cultural adjustment as described by Oberg………………………...36 Figure 2. Stages of cross-cultural adjustment described by Gullahorn and Gullahorn……….37 Figure 3. Sociocultural Adjustment Scale as described by Searle & Ward…………………...40 Figure 4. Japanese Students Sociocultural Adjustment……………………………………...190 Figure 5. Korean Students Sociocultural Adjustment……………………………………….195 Figure 6.African American Students Sociocultural Adjustment………………………….…198 Figure 7. Burmese Student Sociocultural Adjustment………………………………………201 Figure 8. Conceptual Design of Sociocultural Adjustment at MUIC……………………….205 Figure 9. International Student numbers 2013-2016………………………………………..220 vi List of Tables Table 1. Berry’s Acculturation Attitudes…………………………...........................................39 vii List of Abbreviations AAS African American Students ADB Asian Development Bank AEC ASEAN Economic Community ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AUN ASEAN University Network CRT Critical Race Theory DEDU Doctorate of Education HBC Historically Black College HE Higher Education HREC Human Research Ethics Committees IELTS International English Language Testing System IIE International Institute of Education ISDP International Students Degree Program MU Mahidol University MUIC Mahidol University International College NHMRC National Health and Medical Research Council PISA Program for International Assessment SES Socioeconomic Status SCAS Sociocultural Adaptation Scale TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization QS Quacquarelli Symonds viii Table