Mussolini’s Children Mussolini’s Children Race and Elementary Education in Fascist Italy EDEN K. MCLEAN University of Nebraska Press LINCOLN & LONDON © 2018 by the Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska Portions of the introduction and chapters 1 and 2 have previously appeared in “The Rhetoric of Race in Fascist Elementary Education,” in New Perspectives in Italian Cultural Studies, vol. 2, The Arts and History, ed. Graziella Parati (Madison and Teaneck nj: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2013), 265– 84. Used with permission. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: McLean, Eden K., author. Title: Mussolini’s children: race and elementary education in Fascist Italy / Eden K. McLean. Description: Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: lccn 2017043090 isbn 9781496206428 (cloth: alk. paper) isbn 9781496207203 (epub) isbn 9781496207210 (mobi) isbn 9781496207227 (pdf) Subjects: lcsh: Fascism and education— Italy. | Fascism— Italy— History— 20th century. | Fascism and youth— Italy— History— 20th century. | Italy— Race relations. Classification: lcc la791.8 .m35 2018 | ddc 372.94509/041— dc23 lc record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017043090 Set in Sabon Next lt by Mikala R Kolander. For Malcolm CONTENTS List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgments xi List of Common Acronyms xv Introduction 1 PART1. DEFINING FASCIST POWER AND IDENTITY, 1922– 29 1. Designing a Fascist Elementary Education 23 2. “Reawakening the Spirit” 51 PART2. “FASCISTIZING” THE NATION AND RACE, 1929– 34 3. From Instruction to Education 81 4. From Fit to Fascist 105 PART3. RESURRECTING THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 1934– 38 5. Libro e moschetto, fascista perfetto, 1934– 36 131 6. Educating Rulers for the Second Roman Empire, 1936– 38 155 PART4. ENSURING THE EMPIRE’S IMMORTALITY, 1938– 40 7. Enforcing the Racial Ideal 181 8. Enduring Principles of Italian Racial Identity 203 Conclusion 223 Notes 233 Bibliography 275 Index 309 ILLUSTRATIONS Following page 154 1. Copybook cover, Mussolini with children, c. 1938 2. Copybook cover, Piccole Italiane, c. 1938 3. Advertisement for the Day of Mother and Child, 1936 4. Copybook cover, “Civilization,” c. 1938 5. Postcard illustrating the end of the Italo- Ethiopian War, c. 1936 6. err poster, 1938 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I only realized the complexity of my research ambition during a dinner with an Italian politician of impeccable anti-Fascist ped- igree. I had recently arrived in Rome for a year of dissertation research and hoped my idealism and curiosity made up for a distinct lack of archival experience. When the gentleman in his three-piece suit asked me for the focus of my research, I simply and guilelessly stated, “Fascist racism.” He pondered this infor- mation for a moment and then responded, “Well, that is inter- esting, because the Fascists were not racist.” I made some early attempts to explain my approach, but it was soon clear that we had very different views of race and racism. My host explained, “Italians cannot be racist, because there is not just one race in Italy.” When I then suggested that his assertion indicated a belief in the existence of races, he looked at me blankly. “Come no? Of course races exist.” I tried to articulate the problem behind any biological notion of race, and he soon conceded, “Okay, maybe there are no biologically pure races, but certainly there are races based on history, culture, and language.” And with that expla- nation, I saw both the challenge and the necessity of a project on Italian ideas of race during the Fascist years. I dreamed of writing a book based on sources no one had ever seen, on documents that automatically changed the way I and everyone else understood the power and limitations of Italian Fascism. Instead, I wrote a book that relies on evidence accessible to and read by millions of people and that tackles what most readers will agree is a contentious topic. The dis- tance between there and here has been long and hardly linear. xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS What did not change over the course of that decade- long jour- ney were my entwined convictions that we must not ignore the power of ideas and that racism played a fundamental role in Italian Fascism. Along the way, I have relied on innumera- ble people to help me navigate the difficulties of exploring a delicate subject from a new perspective and develop the skills, questions, and friendships necessary to enjoy the adventure. I know I cannot take full credit for whatever strengths this book might have. All its faults, however, are entirely my own. As with any project that starts in the mind of a naïve graduate student and eventually turns into a book, I could not have com- pleted Mussolini’s Children without the patient and persistent work of many graduate mentors and colleagues. I must first thank Frank Snowden for the guidance and friendship he has shown me since I arrived in Yale’s Department of History over a decade ago. During my time in New Haven, he often antic- ipated my needs before I knew they existed: he pushed me to explore ideas or avenues when I felt I went far enough; he sug- gested sources, contacts, or opportunities before I had a chance to ask for them; he expressed concerns when I focused too nar- rowly or too broadly on a subject; and he always had advice for how to improve. Even still, half a continent (or farther) away and with a very full schedule, Frank is never too busy to read a draft or lend an ear. I owe so much of my growth as a scholar and a teacher to Frank and hope he knows how dear he is to me. I also owe many thanks to my other generous graduate- school mentors. Both Tim Snyder and Mark Choate read numerous drafts from out of state and country, and I very much appreci- ate their continued support. John Merriman and Adam Tooze also read various chapters and gave invaluable suggestions for further reading and clarification. Penny Marcus, too, offered her endless enthusiasm for the project, and Ute Frevert generously shared friendship, knowledge, and martinis with her neigh- bor. I also had the distinct pleasure of sharing my work with two writing groups in New Haven. Julia Irwin, Grace Leslie- Waksman, and Alison Greene, as well as Sarah Cameron, Lisa Pinley Covert, and Yedida Kanfer, offered their detailed read- ings and broad knowledge to expand and clarify my writing ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii and thinking. Of course, there were many other graduate-school friends who offered food, dog care, and other forms of support while we worked to figure out the strange world of academia. Kirsten Weld, Steve Prince, Jason Ward, Marco Duranti, Sam and Dana Schaffer, Megan and Sylvan Long, and the Sacks-Huether family— I am forever grateful to and for you all. The end of graduate school can sometimes leave a young scholar feeling a little unmoored, but I have been fortunate enough to find warm and supportive communities within my departments at Western Connecticut State University and Auburn University, and at a variety of conferences and archives. Since arriving at Auburn in 2012, I have felt the encouragement and confidence of all my colleagues and am constantly impressed by how thoughtful and smart they are. Ralph Kingston read early (atrocious) new chapter drafts and provided me with pro- foundly helpful feedback. Christopher Ferguson, too, has read a variety of rough- hewn pieces and, just as importantly, has served as an intellectual coach and cheerleader. The members of the “cul- de- sac”— Sarah Hamilton, Kate Craig, Alan Meyer, Kelly Kennington, and Melissa Blair—have sustained me with their humor, kindness, and deep supply of word suggestions. Ken Noe and Donna Bohanan, despite their busy schedules, have consistently been sources of wisdom and support for me. And then there’s David Carter, who has been an irreplaceable men- tor, editor, ally, therapist, babysitter, and colleague to me. I was so grateful to find family here in Auburn. I have also benefited from the generosity and intellects of Joshua Arthurs, Alessan- dro Pes, Valeria Deplano, Tommaso Dell’Era, and Erica Moretti, each of whom has provided vital feedback and encouragement for this project. I so appreciate all your help. I scoured many libraries, archives, personal collections, and flea markets for the sources included in the following pages. In Rome, the staffs at the Archivio centrale dello stato and Fonda- zione Giovanni Gentile were extremely helpful in my months of research, as were the librarians at the Biblioteca della storia moderna e contemporanea, Biblioteca Giustinio Fortunato, Biblioteca nazionale, Ministero dell’istruzione, dell’Università e della ricerca, and the American Academy. The archivists in xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS the library at the Museo della storia della didattica were espe- cially accommodating, sharing with me books and documents from their personal libraries. In Florence, the librarians in the rare- book room at the Biblioteca nazionale were thoughtful and pleasant, as were the librarians at the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. In the United States, the staffs at the Hoover Institu- tion at Stanford University and the archives at the University of Wisconsin–Madison made my brief stays fruitful and enjoyable. A special word of appreciation is due to the Wolfsonian Museum in Miami Beach, Florida. With one of its generous grants, I spent five weeks at the Wolfsonian during the summer of 2009. Containing the largest collection of Italian Fascist arti- facts and books outside of Italy, the resources and expertise of the library and museum were essential to my project. The kind help of Jon Mogul, Amy Silverman, Nicholas Blaga, and Frank Luca made for an especially productive month of research.