Constitutionalism and Democratic Governance in Africa: Contemporary Perspectives from Sub-Saharan Africa Morris Kiwinda Mbondenyi (LLD, LLM (UNISA), LLB (Moi)) Senior Lecturer in Law, Africa Nazarene University Tom Ojienda (LLD (UNISA), LLM (Kings College), LLB (Nairobi)) Associate Professor of Law, Moi University with the assistance of Thuto Moratuoa Hlalele Centre for Human Rights, Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria 2013 Constitutionalism and democratic governance in Africa: Contemporary perspectives from Sub-Saharan Africa Published by: Pretoria University Law Press (PULP) The Pretoria University Law Press (PULP) is a publisher at the Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria, South Africa. PULP endeavours to publish and make available innovative, high-quality scholarly texts on law in Africa. PULP also publishes a series of collections of legal documents related to public law in Africa, as well as text books from African countries other than South Africa. This book was peer reviewed prior to publication. For more information on PULP, see www.pulp.up.ac.za Printed and bound by: ABC Press Cape Town To order, contact: PULP Faculty of Law University of Pretoria South Africa 0002 Tel: +27 12 420 4948 Fax: +27 12 362 5125 [email protected] www.pulp.up.ac.za Cover: Yolanda Booyzen, Centre for Human Rights Photograph: ‘Nothing is set in stone’ by O.F.E. on Flickr ISBN: 978-1-920538-14-9 © 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD AND DEDICATION ix CONTRIBUTORS xiii PART I: GENERAL THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Introduction to and overview of constitutionalism 1 and democratic governance in Africa Morris Kiwinda Mbondenyi and Tom Ojienda 1 Introduction 3 2 Overview of the book 6 2.1 General theoretical perspectives 6 2.2 Perspectives on constitutionalism, constitution- making and constitutional reforms in Africa 7 2.3 Perspectives on democratic governance in Africa 11 PART II: PERSPECTIVES ON CONSTITUTIONALISM, CONSTITUTION-MAKING AND CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS Tanzania’s experience with constitutionalism, 2 constitution-making and constitutional reforms Benedict Maige Nchalla 1 Introduction 15 2 Tanzania: An overview of the political system 17 3Conceptualisation 19 3.1 Constitution 19 3.2 Constitutionalism 21 3.3 Constitutional reform versus constitution-making 23 4 Constitution-making vis à vis constitutionalism in Tanzania: How far? 24 5 Constitution-making in Tanzania: A glimpse of the historical backdrop 26 5.1 Independence Constitution of 1961 26 5.2 Republican Constitution of 1962 27 5.3 Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar of 1964 28 5.4 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar of 1964 31 5.5 Interim Constitution of Tanzania of 1965 31 5.6 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977 33 6 Administration of justice as regards constitutionalism in Tanzania: A glance 35 7 Constitution reform: Is there a choice not to change the 1977 Grundnorm? 41 8 Features of an effectual and inclusive constitutional reform process 42 iii 9 A new (legitimate) constitution in Tanzania: A people’s appeal 44 10 The constitutional review Act 2011: A knock at the door 47 11 Conclusion 51 From the ‘TPLF Constitution’ to the ‘Constitution 3 of the people of Ethiopia’: Constitutionalism and proposals for constitutional reform Adem Kassie Abebe 1 Introduction: The genesis of constitutionalisation in Ethiopia 51 2 The making of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) Constitution: Its inclusiveness and some implications 54 3 Constitutionalism: Constitutional principles and compliance 57 3.1 Decentralisation 58 3.2 Sovereignty of the nations, nationalities and peoples (ethnic groups) 60 3.3 Human and democratic rights 62 3.4 Transparent and accountable government 67 3.5 Separation of state and religion 69 4 Major factors that have hampered constitutionalism and constitutional development 70 4.1 Increasing authoritarianism and the party-state conflation 71 4.2 Lack of independent and reliable constitutional adjudication system 74 5 Proposals for a possible constitutional reform agenda 79 5.1 Parliamentary versus presidential form of government 80 5.2 The first-past-the-post electoral system 81 5.3 Term limits on the position of the Prime Minister 81 5.4 Changing the constitutional adjudication system 83 5.5 Public ownership of land 83 5.6 Abolishing or empowering the Office of the President? 84 6 Concluding remarks 85 Constitution-making in Eritrea 4 Simon M Weldehaimanot 1 Introduction: Higher law and fine-tuning 89 2 Contestation in Eritrea: Amendment against new constitution-making 91 3 Abrogation of the 1952 Constitution and the notion of a higher law 94 3.1 The 1952 Constitution on amendments 94 3.2 Amendments sought and their legality 96 3.3 The federation: a delicate balance 100 3.4 Lack of arbiter in the constitutional design 102 4 The trashing of the 1997 Constitution 104 iv 4.1 The eagerness to write yet a new constitution 107 4.2 Transition and the permanent constitution under the Accord 108 4.3 Distinction between adopting and amending a constitution 109 4.4 Opposition politicians and living with an independent judiciary 112 5 Conclusion 114 Constitutionalism and constitutional reforms in 5 Ghana Kofi Quashigah 1 Introduction 115 2 The period between independence and the eve of the 1992 Constitution 115 2.1 The search for an acceptable executive system 115 2.2 Protection of fundamental human rights and freedoms 118 2.3 The 1969 constitutional period 121 2.4 The incidence of military coups d’etat 123 2.5 The 1979 Constitution 125 3 The 1992 Constitution 128 3.1 Supremacy of the Constitution 126 3.2 The guarantee of public elections 129 3.3 Human rights and fundamental freedoms 129 3.4 The judiciary under the 1992 Constitution 129 3.5 The legislature 130 4 Proposed reform of the 1992 Constitution 131 5 Conclusion 134 The dawn of constitutionalism in Nigeria 6 Diala Anthony Chima 1 Introduction 135 2 Constitution-making and review in Nigeria: 1960 – 1999 136 2.1 The 1960 Independence Constitution 137 2.2 The 1963 Republican Constitution 139 2.3 Military rule: 1966 – 1999 141 2.4 The 1979 Constitution 144 2.5 The 1999 Constitution 153 3 The legitimacy of the 1999 Constitution 157 4 Conclusion 160 A Federal Constitution devoid of constitutionalism: 7 The case of Cameroon Chofor Che Christian Aimé 1 Introduction 163 2 The colonial history of Cameroon from 1884 to 1960 163 2.1 Introduction 163 2.2 Cameroon under German colonial rule 164 2.3 Cameroon under British and French colonial rule 165 v 2.4 The independence and reunification of Cameroon 170 3 An analysis of constitutionalism under the 1961, 1972 and 1996 Constitutions of Cameroon 172 3.1 The 1961 Federal Constitution 172 3.2 The 1972 Constitution 178 3.3 The 1996 Constitution 182 4 Towards effecting constitutionalism in Cameroon 188 Pre-independence constitutions, participatory 8 constitution-making and constitutionalism in Africa: The case of Botswana Bonolo Ramadi Dinokopila 1 Introduction 191 2 The history and making of the Constitution of Botswana 192 2.1 Constitutional review: The Lobatse conference 196 2.2 Second round of constitutional talks: The London conference 199 2.3 Botswana’s 1966 Republican Constitution 202 3 Understanding Botswana’s constitution-making process and its impact on constitutionalism 206 4 Post-independence: Calls for a constitutional review take centre stage 212 5 Conclusion 215 Popular involvement and constitution-making: 9 The struggle towards constitutionalism in Malawi Mwiza Jo Nkhata 1 Introductory remarks 219 2 Of constitutions and constitution-making 220 2.1 Making a ‘perfect’ constitution 222 3 The crafting of constitutions in Malawi 229 3.1 The 1964 Constitution 229 3.2 The 1966 Constitution 230 3.3 The 1994 Constitution 232 4 Popular involvement and constitution-making in Malawi: Lessons from the Malawian experience 237 5 Constitution-making and constitutionalism in Malawi 239 6 Final remarks 241 PART III: PERSPECTIVES ON DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE Between presidentialism and a human rights 10 approach to constitutionalism: Twenty years of practice and the dilemma of revising the 1990 Constitution of Benin Horace Sègnonna Adjolohoun 1 Introduction 245 2 From constitutional instability to an African Charter-based Constitution 247 vi 3 Main features of the 1990 Constitution 249 3.1 Fundamental principles of the Constitution 250 3.2 Fundamental rights’ protection in Benin’s Constitution of 1990 252 4 Separation and distribution of powers 255 4.1 Strong presidential Executive: ‘Presidentialism’? 256 4.2 The Parliament 257 4.3 Judicial ‘power’ versus judicial ‘authority’ 261 5 Challenges brought by the Constitution in action 263 5.1 Blurring boundaries to separation of powers: Executive’s supremacy 263 5.2 Development and interpretation of the Constitution 270 6 Dilemmas of whether, when, what and how to revise 280 6.1 ‘Do not touch my Constitution’: Opportunistic or progressive revision? 280 6.2 Stronger Executive for socio-economic development? Dilemmas of a revision 284 7 Conclusion 288 From military rule and no party state to 11 multi-partism in Uganda Christopher Mbazira 1 Introduction 291 2 The history of political parties in Uganda 292 2.1 Pre-independent Uganda 292 3 The no-party movement state 295 4 Confronting the irresistible winds of change 300 4.1 Multi-party politics after the lifting of the ban 306 4.2 The lack of political will 306 5 Conclusion 313 Constitutional governance, democratisation and 12 military legacies in post-independence Nigeria Dejo Olowu 1 Introduction 315 2 Nigeria: A panoramic overview 316 3 Governance,