KNOWLEDGE AND EPISTEMIC JUSTIFICATION: AN APPRAISAL OF ROBERT NOZICK’S TRUTH-TRACKING THEORY^ BY OTIEN'O-ADIPO A Research Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Arts in Philosophy in the University of Nairobi University of NAIROBI Library 0389613 1 November, 2012 DECLARATION This Research is my original work and has not been presented for the award o f a degree in any other university. Otieno-Adipo Date This Research has been submitted for examination with our approval as University Supervisors. aO'llv Dr. Owakah, E.A. Francis Date £&j^n / ^7.2 Date u DEDICATION With lots of academic love, to you I dedicate this: Mama, Dani, Dana, and yes, the Peripatetic Wind! m ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am sincerely thankful to the Department of Philosophy, the University of Nairobi for offering me an opportunity to grow academically in pursuit for truth and knowledge. I am indebted to Stitching Porticus Scholarship Fund (Netherlands) for awarding me a scholarship for my graduate studies. I earnestly thank my supervisors Dr. Owakah, E.A. Francis and Dr. Oriare Nyarwath without whom this study would not have been what it is. Their unvarying guidance saw this work to its successful conclusion. 1 thank all members of staff, Department of Philosophy, for refining my analytical skills during my graduate studies. I wish to thank my family and friends for their support. 1 thank my mother, Mary, for her love and support. 1 thank Ochieng’ Adipo, Caro Robi, Josephine and Alphonce; this far I come, thanks to your encouragement and support. I am grateful to Giovanni Bonanomi for the selfless support during my scholarship search. I am equally grateful to my friends Ombati Basweti, Theophilus Chando, Isaac Wasamba, Mwange Kiganda and Abong’o Oketch for their unswerving support and guidance. I thank everyone who contributed toward the realization of this academic achievement. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.............................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION................................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................... v ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................viii DEFINITION OF TERMS.............................................................................................................x CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION................................................................ 1 I. I Background to the Problem................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 The Objectives of the Study...................................................................................................12 1.4 Justification and Significance o f the Study......................................................................... 12 1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study........................................................................................13 1.6 Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 14 1.7 Theoretical Framework...........................................................................................................22 1.8 Study Hypotheses....................................................................................................................24 1.9 Methodology............................................................................................................................ 25 1.9.1 Hermeneutic Method.......................................................................................................... 25 1.9.2 Analytic Method...................................................................................................................26 V • CHAPTER TWO: KNOWLEDGE AS JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF.........................27 2.0 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 27 2.1 Knowledge as Justified True Belief......................................................................................28 2.2 The Epistemic Basis of Justified True Belief..................................................................... 32 2.3 Analyzing Conditions for Knowledge................................................................................. 38 2.4 Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?..................................................................... 43 CHAPTER THREE: SOLVING THE GETTIER PROBLEM ..................................... 48 3.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 48 3.1 Is Gettier Problem a Pseudo-Problem?................................................................................49 3.2 Internalist Analyses o f Knowledge.......................................................................................51 3.3 Externalist Analyses o f Knowledge......................................................................................59 3.4 Counterfactual Analyses of Knowledge.............................................................................. 66 CHAPTER FOUR: THE TRUTH-TRACKING THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE.....71 4.0 Introduction...............................................................................................................................71 4.1 Knowledge as Truth Tracking...............................................................................................72 4.2 Tracking Truth of Skeptic Hypotheses................................................................................ 81 4.3 Tracking Nozick’s Truth: Emerging Problems...................................................................84 4.4 Material Interpretation of Truth-Tracking Theory............................................................. 90 vi CHAPTER FIVE: TRUTH AND CULTURE..................................................................95 5.0 Introduction...’............................................................................................................................95 5.1 On the Cultural Determination o f Truth.............................................................................. 96 5.2 Philosophy in Search of Absolute Truth.............................................................................106 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..... 113 6.0 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 113 6.1 Findings...................................................................................................................................116 6.2 Recommendations..................................................................................................................116 NOTES...........................................................................................................................................118 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................126 VI1 ABSTRACT In this study we make an attempt to address the traditional problem o f epistemic justification by interrogating Robert Nozick’s truth-tracking theory of knowledge. We seek to answer the question: “when and how do we know that we know, or what is it to say that we know?” Plato’s traditional analysis of knowledge as Justified True Belief (JTB) has in the course of history proved insufficient to account for the justification of claims we make about reality. The main critic of the theory is Edmund Gettier who argues that JTB may not conceptually be the same as knowledge and vice versa since JTB may include cases o f luck and guesswork. Nozick, in seeking to salvage JTB from Gettier, assumes that the agent already has truth conditions enabling him to track truth. However, in failing to state the truth conditions of his theory, Nozick makes it impossible for the agent to track truth since the agent does not have the conditions o f truth. In interrogating Nozick’s theory, we seek to appraise the theory to find (he conditions of truth the basis of which Nozick founds his tracking formula. The study employs material interpretation o f truth-functionality o f conditional propositions to establish the truth conditions upon which Nozick’s theory is founded. In so doing, the research asserts the primacy of truth in the analysis of knowledge since knowledge is expressed as true propositions. The study further takes cognizance of social truth and its relevance in the sociological operations o f man; to this extent, the study investigates the idea of truth as socially viii determined. It is concluded that despite appraising truth-tracking theory by identifying truth conditions of the theory, the problem of confirming truth and its existence is not addressed owing to the set objectives of the study. It is recommended that future researchers