ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES AND THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND THE WEST: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO SELECTED OIC AND WESTERN COUNTRIES MONEEF RAFE’ ZOU’BI THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY STUDIES FACULTY OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA KUALA LUMPUR DECEMBER 2012 UNIVERSITI MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION Name of Candidate: Moneef Rafe’ ZOU’BI (Passport No: I450772/L122561) Registration/No. Pendaftaran: SHB050019. Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy. Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”): ACADEMIES OF SCIENCES AND THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND THE WEST: A COMPARATIVE STUDY WITH REFERENCE TO SELECTED OIC AND WESTERN COUNTRIES Field of Study: Science and Technology Studies I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this Work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Signature of Candidate Date: 07 September 2012. Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Signature of Witness Date: 07 September 2012. Name: PROF. DR. MOHD HAZIM SHAH BIN HJ. ABDUL MURAD Designation: Professor & Supervisor ABSTRAK Tesis ini adalah satu kajian pelbagai disiplin mengenai akademi sains dan kegiatan saintifik di Dunia Islam dan Barat. Ia menganalisis asal-usul, peranan, fungsi dan aktiviti-aktiviti akademi sains dari masa ke masa dan merentasi tamadun. Kerana terdapat pertalian yang rapat antara akademi sains dan zaman di mana mereka berkembang, tesis ini melangkaui penulisan yang sedia ada dan mencadangkan kronologi alternatif mengenai kebangkitan dan kemerosotan sains dalam tamadun Islam dan kebangkitan sains di Eropah. Ini adalah dianggap sebagai pra-syarat kepada pemahaman yang lebih baik mengenai kelemahan kegiatan saintifik di dunia Islam dan ketiadaan budaya sains , berbanding dengan Eropah dan Barat. Akademi sains adalah organisasi yang mempunyai sejarah yang panjang. Bagi kebanyakan orang, mereka diselubungi misteri. Ciri-ciri institusi, peranan mereka, fungsi dan aktiviti-walaupun mungkin didokumenkan, adalah tidak diketahui umum.. Untuk menangani hal ini, ciri-ciri institusi beberapa akademi sains disiasat melalui kajian mendalam terhadap penerbitan, kajian silam dan melalui kaedah temubual. Dalam usaha untuk membuat sumbangan asli untuk mempromosikan peranan mereka sebagai tonggak yang amat diperlukan di dalam sistem sains, teknologi dan inovasi (STI), khususnya dalam negara OIC, Tesis ini membahagikan aktiviti-aktiviti akademi sains kepada dua bahagian, iaitu: (i) komponen politik dan (ii) dasar-dasar. Bahagian pertama melibatkan peruntukan berasaskan khidmat nasihat sains, interaksi dengan kerajaan dan parlimen, diplomasi sains dan rangkaian antarabangsa manakala bahagian kedua termasuk pendidikan sains dan promosi penyelidikan saintifik, sedangkan isu wanita dalam bidang sains ditangani di bawah tajuk yang berasingan. Bab kajian perbandingan mengkaji 15 akademi sains dari seluruh dunia dan melibatkan juga kritikan terhadap statut akademi sains yang unggul seperti yang dirumuskan oleh Panel InterAcademy (IAP). Ini boleh membantu untuk menyebarkan amalan terbaik dalam ii akademi sains yang sedia ada, dan boleh menggalakkan penggunaan dan penyesuaian model tersebut bagi keperluan negara tertentu pada masa akan datang. Penemuan utama kajian menunjukkan bahawa walaupun laluan sejarah sains mereka telah pernah bertembung, hari ini terdapat jurang yang luas dalam bidang sains dan penginstitusiannya, di antara Dunia Islam dan Barat. Walaupun banyak inisiatif yang telah diambil dari pihak atasan dalam bidang sains di Dunia Islam, penggunaan S & T sebagai platform untuk pembangunan hanya dihargai oleh beberapa ahli-ahli sains dan beberapa orang pemimpin politik dan masyarakat. Kekurangan naungan politik dan sokongan sains, walaupun dengan adanya legasi kreativiti dan inovasi, adalah punca utama kekurangan sistem STI di dunia Islam. Kurangnya budaya sains dimanifestasikan juga oleh kewujudan sekitar hanya 26 akademi sains di 57 buah negara OIC. Selain itu, sebahagiannya merupakan akademi yang baru, beroperasi pada peruntukan belanjawan yang kecil dan menjalankan beberapa aktiviti yang terhad. Tiada setakat ini yang telah menghidupkan semula semangat yang wujud di zaman yang terdahulu; walau bagaimanapun terdapat pihak yang cuba mencontohi kejayaan rakan sejawat mereka di dunia Barat. iii ABSTRACT This Thesis is an interdisciplinary study of the academies of sciences and the scientific enterprise in the Islamic world and the West. It analyses the genesis, roles, functions and activities of academies of sciences over time and across civilisations, as well as contemporaneously. As there is a close nexus between academies of sciences and the milieus within which they flourish, the Thesis goes beyond existing literature and proposes an alternative chronology of the rise and decline of science in the Islamic civilisation and the ascendance of science in Europe. This is considered a perquisite to a better understanding of the current weakness of the scientific enterprise in the Islamic world and the relative absence of science culture within, compared to Europe and the West. Academies of sciences are organisations that have a long history. For many, they are shrouded in mystery. Their institutional characteristics, roles, functions and activities – although plausibly documented- are not well known. To address this, the institutional traits of some academies of sciences are investigated by means of an in-depth review of published literature, earlier studies and interviews. In order to make a bona fide contribution to promoting their role as indispensable pillars of science, technology and innovation (STI) systems, particularly in OIC countries, the Thesis streamlines the activities of academies of sciences into politics- oriented and policies-based components. The former include the provision of science- based advice, interaction with governments and parliaments, science diplomacy and international networking while the latter include science education and the promotion of scientific research, with the issue of women in science discussed under a separate heading. The comparative study chapter looks at 15 academies of sciences from around the world and includes a critique of the statutes of the model academy of sciences as adopted by the InterAcademy Panel (IAP). This may help to propagate best practices iv within existing academies of sciences, and may prompt further work in adopting and adapting the model to individual country requirements in the future. The main findings of the study reveal that although historically their paths of science have crossed, there is today a wide gap in science, and the institutionalisation thereof, between the Islamic world and the West. Despite many top-down initiatives in science in the Islamic world, the tool of S&T as the platform for development is prized only by some scientists and, at best, a few political and community leaders. Lack of political patronage and support of science, despite a legacy of creativity and innovation, is a major cause of the poor output of the STI system in the Islamic world but it is not the only quandary. The lack of a culture of science manifested by the existence of around 26 academies of sciences in the 57 OIC-member countries is another. Moreover, most such academies are new, operate on shoestring budgets, and undertake a limited number of activities. None has thus far captured the spirit that prevailed around their ancient predecessors; however, some are trying to emulate the success of their counter-parts in the West. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my indebtedness first of all to my supervisor, Professor Mohd. Hazim Shah bin Hj Abdul Murad, for his patience in reviewing the many drafts of this Thesis, and for his good advice and enthusiasm for my project over the past four years. Thanks are also due to my second supervisor, Associate Professor K. Thiruchelvam for his encouragement and support, and to my friends who have been helpful and supportive with their comments. In particular, to Alexandra Fowler who read and commented on my writing and to Lina, Taghreed and Tanja for their help with the finer points of word processing. I am also grateful to my friends in Malaysia who have made my Malaysian experience memorable and to my friends around the world who share my axiom that each of us should try to make a difference in his/her own way. Closer to home, I wish to express my thanks