Paper No. : 03 Archaeological Anthropology Module : 11 Neolithic Revolution Development Team Principal Investigator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi Paper Coordinator Dr. Manoj Kumar Singh Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi Dr. D. K. Bhattacharya, Retd. Professor, Department of Content Writer Anthropology, University of Delhi Content Reviewer Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi 1 Archaeological Anthropology Anthropology Neolithic Revolution Description of Module Subject Name Anthropology Paper Name 03 Archaeological Anthropology Module Name/Title Neolithic Revolution Module Id 11 2 Archaeological Anthropology Anthropology Neolithic Revolution Table of contents: 1. Introduction 2. Changes during Neolithic Revolution 2.1 Technology 2.2 Social structure 2.3 Ideology 3. Features of Neolithic Revolution 3.1 Celts 3.2 Pottery 3.3 Habitation Learning Outcomes To know and understand the Neolithic Revolution To know the changes that took place during this time To know the features of Neolithic Revolution To develop an in depth knowledge of the topic 3 Archaeological Anthropology Anthropology Neolithic Revolution 1. Introduction It is interesting to observe that the term Neolithic, unlike the preceding terms viz., Palaeolithic, Mesolithic etc., is not referred to as merely a chrono-cultural category progressing under the forces of evolution. It is taken as a revolution and not merely an evolution. The possible combination of forces which give rise to the birth of full time dependency on farming, as such, forms an important area of study. Further it is far more important to investigate the manner in which diverse socio-cultural rearrangements occur as a result of undertaking this economy. One of the most widely current views about the emergence of farming has been an acute stress of subsistence because of the twin causes of population increase on the one hand (Malthus, 1895) and climate shift (Binford, 1968) on the other. Boserup‟s (1965) thesis purports that when a population grows more people per land unit are faced with the necessity of being provided with more food. This has to be done by intensifying their relationship with land and also adequately changing their technology. In addition to climate change and population increase weakening of social control is cited as the third factor by Benett (1968) and Amartya Sen (1981) which causes subsistence stress within a society. Which of the above factors results into what kind of resource retrieval strategies remain largely dependent on the character of the biodiversity available. The first ever thrust of hunger in early Holocene was met by rapidly shifting the subsistence base to r-selected species (i.e.,species with short maturation period- both in the animal as well as plant world) from the earlier (Upper Pleistocene) adaptation of k-selected species (species with long maturation period). Probably the changed climate also heralded a proliferation of hundreds of graminae (grass species) all over the middle latitudes and banks of newly formed lakes and bogs. These tempted a large proportion of our ancestors to adapt to the wild growth of these grass seeds. It is important to mention here that rainforests which had shrunk to almost 15º latitude on both sides of the equator, provided no such opportunity. Obviously leaf, roots, tubers and nuts in addition to the k-selected species continued to be the subsistence base for the populations inhabiting these regions. There are, however, many gaps within these rainforests cover where a different form of adaptation can originate. That is, one cannot have a blanket of latitude limits to generalize cultural adaptation. In fact mini eco-niches seem to have played a far more crucial role in developing cultural changes. Generally speaking adaptation to few species of the grass family such as wheat, barley, rice and millets started well within Mesolithic period in the mid-latitudes (say, between 35º and 15º). Beidho in Jordan and the adjoining Natufians are probably the earliest evidence of such man to wild seed relationship known from these latitudes. But these variety of adaptation required animal source of protein as well. Consequently by the sixth millennium B.C. man was totally geared to exploiting only r-selected species in both the floral and faunal components of the biomass. For the west Asian sites collection of pistachio nuts or hunting of gazelle and wild ass are examples of such hunting-gathering economy. The 4 Archaeological Anthropology Anthropology Neolithic Revolution archaeological evidences available from these sites also help in answering the question- Did sedentism precede agriculture or is it the other way round? Again, going by the evidences of excavated sites from west Asia it would appear that sedentism occurs at least 1000 years earlier, if not more, before domesticated seeds are identified. Thus, one can see that a simple choice made by man in early Holocene had an enormous effect on human destiny. Since wild wheat and barley could be obtained only at specific localities (like the slopes of Zagros mountains in present day Iraq), man had to, by necessity, become semi-sedentary. It is argued that this resulted in the rise of fat content in human body. Fat content in the body below a critical level inhibits ovulation, and this could keep an average birth spacing of 3 to 4 years for active hunters. Taking to sedentism, as such, is believed to have released this barrier and consequently human population started growing exponentially within a short time. The nature of the resource being geo-specific, these hunter-gatherers could not undergo fission- which must have been an effective population management technique in the preceding period. The combined effect of these two contradictory factors finally led man to carry the wild seeds and plant them along alluvial stretches, bogs, and lakes. Thus, man enters into productive economy, without realising what such an economy entails in the long run. 2. Changes during Neolithic Revolution The new economy requires a series of substantial changes in technology, social structure and ideology. These changes create such a degree of change in the society that one feels that the word revolution alone can adequately describe it. The changes may be briefly described as follows: 2.1 Technology: Clearing forest in order to allow sun to reach the farming field was by no means a simple task. Specially rubbed and ground homogeneous rock was chosen to create efficient axes. Possibly clearing by fire was also used to clear bushes and undergrowth. Heavy ring-stones were created to be used as thrasher. Logging is essentially a labour intensive activity and harnessing labour always brings about the cardinal issue of redistribution of harvest in the manner of wages. Production economy brings about a new challenge. Our ancestors were never confronted with the problem of surplus and their storage in the preceding economy. This new problem was solved by creating adequate technique and expertise of pottery making. 2.2 Social structure: Labour management can be done by many methods. For instance people from simple societies practising Mesolithic economy in the neighbourhood can be lured into a symbiotic relationship. Alternately these people could be forced to contribute their labour, but this requires a degree of militarisation which is not evidenced till early metal age (e.g. in Sumeria). If marriage is established as an institution supported by whole range of sanctions and regulatory mechanisms this can 5 Archaeological Anthropology Anthropology Neolithic Revolution enable one to draw labour on the basis of obligatory kinship loyalties. Thus, besides regulating mate selection marriage starts functioning also as the assured source of labour management. 2.3 Ideology: Agriculture is based on a limited land space chosen for farming. This contrasts the psychic stand of accepting a limitless ecology of both forest and waterscape as subsistence base in the preceding cultural period. Early farming was not only rain dependent but also wide open to insects and parasites. Consequently a permanent security of supply was not always predictable. This led to complex rituals and allied activities to combat unpredictability. It is believed that ancestor worship might have emerged at this stage. It is also through this link and allied rituals that inheritance rights have to be established. Inheritance becomes a central concern in agriculture because the subsistence base of a homestead is limited in this economy. A community which is not capable of creating a regulatory mechanism for these diverse factors may not be able to sustain agriculture even if it has been able to domesticate wild seeds. In fact the manner in which these varieties of factors combine themselves can create different shades of societies. Gradually a peasant group emerges with the ability to possess a surplus which constructs power and this in turn creates hierarchical rights to resources. The call for intensification of agriculture occurs only when a political authority rises from within the system and mobilises productivity above the culturally determined cut-off point. Role of farming in giving rise to a proper village culture has to be, therefore, understood more in terms of the rise of social institutions which went hand in hand with demographic strength. It is, consequently, understood that areas where demography did not show much change because of high rate of child mortality in endemic parasitic zones farming remained in a very rudimentary stage. Harris (1972) has also argued that, “On ecological grounds, therefore, we can postulate that a long initial phase of cultivation by ecosystem manipulation preceded the emergence of agriculture in the strict sense of the word.” (page 183) 3. Features of Neolithic Revolution It will be worth our while to examine the available archaeological evidences of Neolithic period in the backdrop of the issues delineated above. The cultural attributes can be reduced into the following discriminating antiquities: a) Celts, b) Potsherds and c) Habitation structure.