Annexure I UGC-MRP-PROJECT REPORT 1. INTRODUCTION Mushrooms or macromycetes, a large group of fungi, belonging to kingdom Mycetae, are cosmopolitan heterotrophic organisms with distinct spore bearing fruiting bodies typically produced above ground on soil or other diverse substrates. These fruiting bodies or sporocarps acquire fleshy, subfleshy or sometimes leathery, umbrella like sporophores bearing their fertile surfaces either on lamellae or lining the tubes, opening out by means of pores (Chang and Miles, 1992; Rahi and Malik, 2015). They consist of an extensive network of microscopic thread-like filaments (hyphae), which under favourable conditions of temperature and moisture give rise to one or more fruit body (Roody, 2003). Reflecting the morphological diversity, mushrooms have been generally grouped as agarics, boletes, stinkhorns, cup fungi, bracket fungi, truffles, jelly fungi, puffballs, bird’s nest fungi etc. (Karwa and Rai, 2010; Andrew et al., 2013). Based on substrate preferences, mushrooms are generally referred to as humicolous (growing on humus) e.g. Russula spp., Lactarius spp., Lepiota spp., Agaricus spp., lignicolous (i.e growing on wood) e.g Laetiporus, Ganoderma, Auricularia, Schizophyllum etc., coprophilous (growing on dung) e.g Psilocybe spp., Coprinus spp., while some others may show mycorrhizal associations with both broad-leaved forest trees and gymnospermous taxa e.g Russula, Inocybe, Paxillus (Toma et al., 2013). Predominantly eventualizing during rainy season and spring season or when snow melts, they occupy diverse niches in nature in the forest ecosystem (Pushpa and Purushothama, 2012). Current estimated fungi on earth are ranged between 3.5 to 5.1 million species, of which 97,861 species belonging to 8283 genera have been described so far and in this statistics 27,046 are known to be macrofungi (O’Brien et al., 2005; Kirk et al., 2008). Taxonomically, majority of the mushrooms have been recently categorized into two sub- divisions viz., Agaricomycotina and Pezizomycotina of the division Basidiomycota and Ascomycota respectively. In Agaricomycotina, Agaricomycetes constitute the largest group of fungi, distributed in 17 orders spread over 100 families whereas, in Pezizomycotina, order Pezizales of Pezizomycetes comprises of 16 families followed by Helotiales (Leotiomycetes) with 10 families. The Agaricales or euagarics is the most diverse order of the class Agaricomycetes. In “The Agaricales of Modern Taxonomy”, Singer (1986) classified Agaricales into three sub- 1 |Diversity and ethnomycology of wild macrofungi of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, J&K. orders i.e. Agaricineae, Boletineae and Russulineae, having 17 families comprising of 230 genera with over 7000 species worldwide. Hawksworth et al. (1995) included 15 families, 297 genera and 6,000 species in the order Agaricales. However, recently Kirk et al. (2008) in the “Dictionary of the Fungi” mentioned 33 families consisting of 413 genera and 13, 233 species in this order. Many members of the order are either humicolous or lignicolous, sometimes muscicolous or fungicolous, saprobic, mycorrhizal and rarely parasitic on plants or fungi including several edible, poisonous and hallucinogenic forms (Kirk et al., 2008). Earlier, the order was classified on the basis of presence of gills and umbrella shaped sporocarps, however, genetic and phylogenetic relatedness of different species led to widening of order Agaricales into many non gilled mushrooms also, especially gasteriods, in addition to gilled members (Binder et al., 1997; Matheny and Bougher, 2006). Boletales, another varied order of class Agaricomycetes contains about 1316 species with diverse array of fruit body types (Kirk et al., 2008). It was earlier found to describe tube fungi but based on micro-morphological and molecular phylogenatic characteristics, a large number of non-tubular species including lamellate and gasteroid forms have recently been established to belong to this group as well (Binder and Hibbett, 2006). It differs from the poroid Aphyllophorales in having a soft, fleshy basidiocarp similar to the Agaricales and in tubes being easily separable from the pileus, which usually have a central stipe (Hawksworth et al., 1995). Russuloid group of fungi belonging to order Russulales, includes the agaric genera Russula and Lactarius and their polyporoid and corticoid relatives. The order is morphologically most distinct, comprising of remarkable variety of sporophore forms including resupinate, discoid, clavarioid, pileate or gasteroid and have smooth, poroid, hydnoid to lamellate hymenophore. The members of this order are primarily saprotrophs but some are ectomycorrhizal and root parasites (Miller et al., 2006; Kirk et al., 2008). Hawksworth et al. (1995) considered 2 families (Elasmomycetaceae and Russulaceae) having 10 genera and 484 species in this order. Later, the number was raised to 1767 species belonging to 80 genera and 12 families (Kirk et al., 2008). Class Agaricomycetes also include funnel shaped or pileate sporocarps with smooth, wrinkled or folded hymenophores having smooth, hyaline and inamyloid basidiospores. Such macrofungi have been kept in the order Cantharellales comprising of 544 species belonging to 38 genera and 7 families including Aphelariaceae, Cantharellaceae, Clavulinaceae, Tulasnellaceae etc (Pine et al., 1999; Kirk et al., 2008). Besides, chanterelles (Cantharellaceae), some of the tooth-fungi (Hydnaceae), clavarioid forms (Aphelariaceae and Clavulinaceae) and corticioid mushrooms (Botryobasidiaceae) are also included in this order. 2 |Diversity and ethnomycology of wild macrofungi of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, J&K. The clavaroid group of mushroom forming fungi belongs to the order Gomphales. Kirk et al. (2008) included 336 species spreading over 18 genera and 3 families (Clavariadelphaceae, Gomphaceae and Lentariaceae), whereas, Hawksworth et al. (1995) have mentioned about 133 species, 9 genera and 3 families (Gomphaceae, Lentariaceae and Ramariaceae). They are prominent in forest ecosystems as saprotrophs and mutualists and are recognized by their bright colour, coral-like or club-like sporophores that may be simple, cylindrical, clavate to truncate or much branched. The hymenophores are present only in the upper parts of the sporophores or branches. In addition to basidiocarp forming macrofungi, a group of ascomycetous fungi having large, discoid, cupulate or globose apothecia, sometimes stalked, bearing elongated, thin walled, operculate asci opening by a lid or operculum at tip are included in Pezizales. The ascospores are usually ellipsoidal to occasionally fusoid, aseptate, hyaline to strongly pigmented and often ornamented. They are saprobic, mycorrhizal or parasitic on plants and comprise of 1029 species belonging to 177 genera and 17 families (Hawksworth et al., 1995). But Kirk et al. (2008) raised the number of species to 1683 belonging to 199 genera and 16 families. The most common families of this order having the genera of fleshy fungi are Helvellaceae, Morchellaceae, Pezizaceae, Ascobolaceae, Pyronemataceae etc. From ancient times, these diverse kinds of mushrooms have been considered as good source of food all over the world having high nutritional value almost twice as that of any vegetable (Chauhan et al., 2014). Wild edible mushrooms not only provide high amount of proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fibre but also reported to be a good source of essential antioxidants. Mushroom protein contains all the nine essential amino acids required by humans. In addition, mushrooms are a relatively good source of phosphorus, iron and vitamins including thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, ergosterol and niacin. WEMs, thus, can be used in the prevention and treatment of various health ailments including modern lifestyle diseases and are also recommended for athletes. Moreover, it has been increasingly used as feed supplements to improve health or treat diseases of pets, domestic and spot animals (Pohleven et al., 2016). In recent times, mushrooms have drawn worldwide attention as the natural source of diverse and unique bioactive molecules with anti-bacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti- cancer, anti-tumour, anti-HIV, hypocholesterolemic, anti-diabetic and hepatoprotective potential (Chang and Buswell, 1996; Ajith and Janardhanan, 2007; Das, 2010; Veena and Pandey, 2012). 3 |Diversity and ethnomycology of wild macrofungi of Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, J&K. The branch of science study of mushroom utilization by humans as food, medicine, in crafts and rituals is known as ethnomycology. The most obvious human interaction with fungi is their consumption as food. The early civilizations of the Greeks, Egyptians, Aryans, Chinese and Mexicans valued mushrooms for their therapeutic value, as delicacy and also used them in religious ceremonies. The Greeks believed mushrooms to provide strength for warriors in battle, Romans considered them as “Food of God” whereas Chinese regarded them as “Elixir of Life”. The Mexican Indians used mushrooms as hallucinogens in religious ceremonies and in witchcraft as well as for therapeutic purposes (Chang and Miles, 1988, 2004; Kumari et al., 2012; Rahi and Malik, 2015). The State of Jammu and Kashmir has been recognized as one of the hotspot of biodiversity including mushrooms as is evident from the literature (Cooke, 1870, 1876; Berkeley, 1876; Murrill, 1924; Watling and Gregory, 1980; Abraham et al., 1981, 1984; Kaul, 1981; Abraham and Kaul, 1985, 1988; Watling and