Walden University College of Education This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by Vicki Abbinante has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Kathleen Lynch, Committee Chairperson, Education Faculty Dr. Christina Dawson, Committee Member, Education Faculty Dr. Dimitrios Vlachopoulos, University Reviewer, Education Faculty Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D. Walden University 2017 Abstract Policy Decisions and Options-Based Responses to Active Shooters in Public Schools by Vicki M. Abbinante CAS, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2007 MA, Northern Illinois University, 1984 BS, Northeastern Illinois University, 1978 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Education Walden University May 2017 Abstract Active shooter events in K-12 schools have increased since 1990, and developing response policies to such events is a responsibility of school personnel. A paucity of data regarding options-based response practices existed with no focus on policy processes. The purpose of this qualitative multi-case study was to describe the decision- making processes used in school districts when approving the inclusion of options-based responses to active shooter events in Emergency Operations Plans (EOPs). The research questions addressed processes that shaped the development of options-based responses to active shooter policies in 3 K-12 school districts within the Midwest. The conceptual framework was informed by the theory of policy paradox and the concepts of situational awareness and resilience. Structured interviews were conducted with 12 school personnel and safety professionals involved in 3 high schools; EOPs and state and federal regulations and guidelines were reviewed. An analysis of the interview responses and document reviews using four levels of descriptive coding required a cross-case analytic technique to discover patterns, connections, and themes. Law enforcement and school personnel worked together to create policy and to implement trainings related to options- based response. Results included enhancing situational awareness and empowering teachers and students to become responsible for their safety. These findings can be used to inform and guide school leaders in their efforts to make policy and implementation decisions regarding active shooter policies in EOPs. The potential for social change exists in more school personnel understanding and implementing options-based response policies and making the lives of K-12 students safer. Policy Decisions and Options-Based Responses to Active Shooters in Public Schools by Vicki M. Abbinante CAS, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2007 MA, Northern Illinois University, 1984 BS, Northeastern Illinois University, 1978 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Education Walden University May 2017 Dedication This study is dedicated to all educators who have lost their lives trying to protect their students from harm. This study is also dedicated to educators who work tirelessly everyday so that students can be prepared academically, socially, and emotionally to deal with the complex world in which they live. This study is dedicated to the educators of the 3:17 Club. Their impact on the lives of students is remarkable. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge Dr. Kathleen Lynch for her guidance and motivation throughout my PhD journey. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Christina Dawson for her advice and encouragement as a member of my committee. I am truly grateful that both of these committee members understood the urgency and importance behind a study that concerned the safety of school children during this critical time in history. Also, I would like to mention my mother, Judy Hagen Kovarik, who taught me I could do anything I set my mind to do and my father, Edward Hagen, who planted the seed of the idea of earning a PhD many years ago; my son Justin, who was my greatest cheerleader; my son Brandon, who was my best technical adviser and tireless supporter; and my loving husband, George Mosho, without whose patience and love this study would not have been possible. Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ................................................................................... 1 Background of Study ................................................................................................... 2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................... 5 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 6 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 7 Crisis Event Scenario That Matches Policy ........................................................... 8 Crisis Event Scenario That Does Not Match Policy .............................................. 9 Nature of the Study ................................................................................................... 14 Definitions ................................................................................................................. 14 Assumptions ............................................................................................................... 22 Scope and Delimitations ............................................................................................ 23 Limitations ................................................................................................................. 23 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 24 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 28 Literature Search Strategy ........................................................................................... 29 Political Decision-Making in Schools ........................................................................ 30 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................... 35 i The Theory of Policy Parodox in Political Decision-Making .............................. 35 Informed Response Through Situational Awareness ............................................ 38 The Concept of Organizational and Individual Resilience .................................... 48 Three Concepts, One Framework ......................................................................... 54 School Safety and Student Achievement ............................................................. 56 Lockdown Response Versus Options-Based Responses……………………………59 Lockdown Response……………………………………………………………..59 Options-Based Response………………………………………………………...61 Government Regulations and Recommendations ....................................................... 64 An Increase in Active Shooter Events ........................................................................ 71 Valuable Statistics……………………………………………………………..…72 The Perpetrator…………………………………………………………………...73 The Active Shooter Incident……………………………………………………..74 Mass Murder Attacks………………………………………………………….…75 Improving Survival………………………………………………………………76 Community Collaboration on School Safety .............................................................. 78 Summary and Conclusion…………………………………………………................82 Major Themes in the Literature………………………………………………….82 What I Learned From the Literature and What is Yet to be Studied…………….83 Filling a Gap in the Literature…………………………………………………….84 Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................. 86 Research Design and Rationale .................................................................................. 87 ii Research Questions ............................................................................................... 87 Central Phenomenon of the Study ........................................................................ 88 Research Tradition……………………………………………………………….89 Rationale for the Chosen Tradition ....................................................................... 89 Role of the Researcher ................................................................................................. 90 Biases and Other Ethical Issues ............................................................................ 91 Methodology ............................................................................................................... 92 Site Selection ........................................................................................................ 92 Sampling Strategy and Participant Selection .......................................................