SHIFTING IDENTITIES: REPRESENTATIONS OF SHONA WOMEN IN SELECTED ZIMBABWEAN FICTION By JOSEPHINE MUGANIWA Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject of ENGLISH at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH STUDIES PROMOTER: PROFESSOR M. T. VAMBE JUNE 2018 1 Declaration I, Josephine Muganiwa student number 5764-6619 declare that “Shifting Identities: Representations of Shona Women in selected Zimbabwean Fiction” is my own work and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that l have not previously submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at UNISA for another qualification or at any other higher education institution. Signature............. ...........Date...........30/01/2019 2 Dedication To my son Emmanuel Tinotenda Muganiwa And my father Philemon Hohloka Sithole My best cheer-leaders promoted to glory! To the Almighty who saw me through it all! 3 Acknowledgements I am greatly indebted to my promoter Professor M. T. Vambe who tirelessly read my work and provided intellectual mentorship, inspiration, prodding and encouragement. Thank you Professor Vambe for your dedication and support that has led me this far. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my institution, especially members of the English Department at the University of Zimbabwe for support in various ways (thank you Team English). I am indebted to family and friends (way too many to list by name) who encouraged and assisted the best way they could, especially Gladys and Hazel. Last, but not least, I say thank you to my husband, Daniel, and children, Taku and Musa, for the love and support on this journey. 4 Contents Declaration .............................................................................................................................................. 2 Dedication ............................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 4 Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 8 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 9 Chapter One: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 10 1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 Statement of Problem ..................................................................................................................... 15 1.3 Aim .................................................................................................................................................. 16 1.4 Research Questions of the Study .................................................................................................... 16 1.5 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 16 1.6 Justification and scope of the Study ............................................................................................... 17 1.7 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 19 1.8 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................... 23 1.9 Research Methodologies ................................................................................................................ 26 1.10 Chapter Organisation .................................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER TWO: EXTENDED LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 29 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 29 2.1 Tracing Discourses on Shona women in Non-Fictional Accounts ................................................... 29 2.2 The Concept of Postcolonialism ...................................................................................................... 45 2.3 The Concept of ‘Representations’ ................................................................................................... 50 2.4The Concept of Stereotypes............................................................................................................. 52 2.5 Construction of identity in Fictional narratives .............................................................................. 55 2.6 Identifying the Shona people .......................................................................................................... 58 2.7 Shona Women in Zimbabwean Fiction in English ........................................................................... 60 2.8 Representation of Shona women in Zimbabwean Literature ......................................................... 64 2.9 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER THREE: REPRESENTATION OF THE SHONA WOMAN IN WHITE AUTHORED NOVELS ........ 75 3.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 75 3.1 Contextualising white writing ......................................................................................................... 76 3.1.1 Plot of Peter Halket of Mashonaland ........................................................................................... 77 5 3.2 Shona Women and Sexuality .......................................................................................................... 80 3.3 Roles Between Shona Men and Women ........................................................................................ 83 3.4 Shona women in the 1950s – Doris Lessing’s The Grass is Singing ................................................ 83 3.5 Brief Description of Doris Lessing ................................................................................................... 84 3.6 Setting of The Grass is Singing ........................................................................................................ 86 3.6.1 The character Mary Turner ....................................................................................................... 87 3.6.2 Depiction of Shona women in The Grass is Singing .................................................................. 88 3.7 Comparative analysis of Shona women in Trooper and Grass is Singing ....................................... 93 3.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 94 CHAPTER FOUR: SHONA WOMEN AND SPIRIT POSSESSION .............................................................. 96 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 96 4.1 Plot of Nehanda .............................................................................................................................. 98 4.2 Shona Cosmology .......................................................................................................................... 100 4.3 Nehanda: Matriarchy and the Medium ........................................................................................ 103 4.4 Representation of Nehanda in Nehanda ...................................................................................... 108 4.5 Shards: Spirit Possession in the Post-2000 era ............................................................................. 113 4.6 Ancestral Spirit (mudzimu) in Shards ............................................................................................ 114 4.7 Madness and Spirit possession ..................................................................................................... 119 4.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 125 CHAPTER FIVE: SHONA WOMEN AND CLASS .................................................................................... 127 5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 127 5.1 Defining Class ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 5.2 Plot of The Uncertainty of Hope (2006) ........................................................................................ 131 5.2.1 Women and livelihoods in crisis: The Uncertainty of Hope .................................................... 131 5.2.2 Onai’s dilemma and the social ladder .................................................................................... 134 5.2.3