Towards the ‘Federated States of North America’: The Advocacy for Political Union between Canada and the United States, 1885-1896 Aaron W. Boyes Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in History Department of History Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Aaron W. Boyes, Ottawa, Canada, 2016 Abstract This dissertation examines the movement for political union that existed in Canada and the United States between 1885 and 1896. During this period the Dominion was plagued by economic malaise, “racial” tension, and regionalism, all of which hindered national growth and the creation of a distinct Canadian nationality. The Republic, meanwhile, experienced substantial economic growth thanks to increasing industrialization, and many Americans sought to expand the territory of their nation. It was in this atmosphere of Canadian political and economic uncertainty and American expansionism that the idea of forming one grand continental republic re-emerged. To provide a more complete understanding of the movement for political union this study examines its emergence, development, and ultimate failure. Although at no time did it become a mass or popular movement, political unionism became an important element in the public discourse in both Canada and the United States. Furthermore, this dissertation shows that political unionism was not only an English-speaking phenomenon, as several of the core group of advocates identified herein were French Canadian, and there was a serious debate about French Canada’s future in North America. Many previous studies that have explored this era in Canadian-American relations have overlooked the significance of the movement for political union, largely by focusing on the tense economic relationship and the debate over free trade. However, as this dissertation argues, economic considerations for political union were secondary amongst its proponents. They did not support political union for personal gain. Rather, supporters of the movement shared a conviction in the need to unite the continent due to a sense of shared racialism and the belief in the superiority of republicanism. This dissertation also ii offers a new perspective on the core group of advocates of political union. They were not “traitors” who had turned their back on Canada and wished to “sell out” the Dominion to the United States. These figures did not want “annexation”; they desired a true political union. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation took over five years to complete, and in that time I relied on the assistance of many people. I am grateful for the opportunity to offer my thanks to those that helped make this possible. First and foremost, a most sincere thank you to my supervisor Professor Damien- Claude Bélanger. It was Damien who first introduced the topic of political unionism in Canadian-American relations back in 2007 when I was an undergraduate at Trent University. He encouraged me to pursue graduate studies and since then has provided constant support, reassurance, and guidance. He was the best supervisor to work with, as he gave me full independence during both the researching and writing stages, yet was always available to meet with me when needed. The several research grants he was able to secure for me also provided much needed funding. I am truly thankful for his friendship and mentorship over the past decade, and feel that he has gone above and beyond the role of a PhD supervisor. A special thank you goes out to Dr. Chris Pennington for not only giving up a few hours of his time to chat with me about Canadian-American relations and his own experience as a PhD student, but for graciously providing me with his research notes from the New York City Public Library and the Western Reserve Historical Society. This very kind act saved me time and money, both of which are precious to a graduate student. I sincerely appreciate his generous assistance and I look forward to collaborating with Chris on other projects in the future. The Department of History at the University of Ottawa has been my academic home since 2008 and I am indebted to many amazing people there. Thank you to iv Dr. Michel Bock and Dr. Lotfi Ben-Rejeb for supervising my doctoral fields. Their advice and scholarly insight have greatly assisted the betterment of this dissertation. Thank you to Dr. Galen Perras for allowing me to ask dozens of questions about his research trips to the United States, and for making excellent suggestions about places to visit while in Washington, D.C. Thank you to Dr. Heather Murray for her invaluable advice as I prepared to teach my first university-level course. Other professors that I would like to thank for their time and support are: Dr. Hernan Tesler-Mabé, Dr. Jean- François Lozier, and Dr. Michael Behiels (my MA Thesis supervisor). It is no exaggeration to say that the Department would not be the same without the incredible administrative staff. Whenever I had a question or needed help, as grad students invariably do, I knew that I could always rely on Suzanne Dalrymple, Manon Bouladier- Major, and Louise Roy. In order to complete my research I visited several libraries and archives, and at every institution I received excellent and friendly assistance. My thanks to the staff at Library and Archives Canada (Ottawa), Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Montréal), Queen’s University Archives (Kingston), the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library (University of Toronto), the Archives of Ontario (York University), the City of Toronto Archives, and the Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.). I was fortunate to have had the opportunity to form friendships with some amazing young scholars during my graduate career. Thank you Madeleine Kloske, Katie Simanzik, Andrew Gaiero, Muhamed Amin, Dan Pellerin, Caroline D’Amours, Alexandre Sawyer, Denis Lamoureux, and to the many others whom I had the pleasure to meet while a student at uOttawa. v A special thank you to Dr. Sean Graham, Patrick Fournier, Jeremy Garrett, and Michael Thompson. A great group of guys and even better friends. Outside of my academic life I could always rely on my friends to help me clear my mind while watching sports or chatting over a coffee. Thank you to Nathan Sassi and Eric MacDonald for providing these distractions. I do not think I would have made it to this point were it not for the escape that playing Ultimate provided; I play on a great team with wonderful people. Thank you, as well, to all my friends from Trent University whom I have had the privilege of knowing since 2004, specifically Emma Sheppard and Philip Turnbull. I have an incredible family that always believed in me and who never let me give up on my goal of completing my PhD. I know that I can always count on my dad, Dann Boyes, to offer his guidance, love, friendship, and support whenever I need it. My mom, Megan MacLennan, consistently reminded me how proud she is and continually offered her love and support. Thank you to my sister Lindsay, my brother-in-law Ryan, and my nephew Reid for offering their love and motivation throughout this long process. Thank you to my brother Jordan, truly one of the best people I know. Thank you to my in-laws Jeff Reilly and Kate Powell for welcoming me into their family, and to Tracy Reilly for always making me feel like one of her own. The final and most heartfelt thank you is reserved for my amazing wife, Megan. She has seen this project through from its beginning to end, and it is due to her that I finished. She made this PhD possible with her unfailing love and support. During the invariable low times I experienced, Megan was there to pick me up and give me the strength and the resolve to continue. She is the most amazing partner and mother-to-be, vi and to her I am the most grateful. It is no stretch to say that I would not be where I am today without her. Aaron Boyes Ottawa, Ontario April 2016 vii This dissertation is dedicated to my father, Dann. With love, respect, and admiration. viii Table of Contents Abstract ii-iii Acknowledgements iv-vii Dedication viii Table of Contents ix Introduction 1 Chapter One: The Emergence of the Movement for Political Union, 1885-1889 42 Chapter Two: The Heyday of the Movement for Political Union, 1890-1892 96 Chapter Three: Towards the End of the Movement, 1893-1896 163 Chapter Four: The Leading Figures and Ideas of the Movement for Political Union 210 • The Leading Figures • Prosperity and Materialism • Racialism • Republicanism Conclusion 265 Bibliography 280 ix Introduction “The movement in favour of continental union,” reflected Goldwin Smith in 1894, “was as spontaneous and as natural as any popular movement could be.”1 The movement may have been spontaneous but at no point was it popular, and it certainly was not unexpected. All of the necessary prerequisites were present at the end of the nineteenth century, which enabled the movement for political union between Canada and the United States to emerge. Both the Dominion and the Republic were undergoing significant political, economic, cultural, and ideological change, which, when combined, bred an ideal atmosphere in which to discuss the future of the two nations. In the 1880s and 1890s the movement for political union, which at times occupied a significant amount of attention in both countries, did not emerge in a vacuum. Rather, it must be seen as the final moment during the nineteenth century when a number of Canadians and Americans seriously considered eliminating the international border and creating a single continental nation.2 The movement for political union may have been spontaneous and natural, as Goldwin Smith outlined, but certainly was not a new idea in the 1880s and 1890s.