Criminalisation of Smuggling of Migrants in ASEAN Member States Copyright © 2019, United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Regional Office for Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Disclaimer This report has not been formally edited. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC, Member States, or contributory organizations, and neither do they imply any endorsement. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC or the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Table of contents Abbreviations and acronyms ............................................................................................................... i Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................. ii I Introduction and outline ............................................................................................................ 1 I.1 Topic ........................................................................................................................................... 1 I.2 Background and context ............................................................................................................ 1 I.2.1 Smuggling of migrants in Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 1 I.2.2 UN Smuggling of Migrants Protocol ...................................................................................... 2 I.2.3. Context of this research ......................................................................................................... 4 I.3 Purpose and goals ...................................................................................................................... 4 I.4 Structure .................................................................................................................................... 5 I.5 Methodology and source material ............................................................................................. 6 I.5.1 International framework ....................................................................................................... 7 I.5.2 Domestic laws ........................................................................................................................ 8 I.5.3 Limitations and obstacles ...................................................................................................... 9 II International frameworks and requirements ............................................................................. 11 II.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 11 II.2 Ratification of and accession to international legal instruments ............................................. 12 II.3 Domestic laws and policies relating to smuggling of migrants ................................................ 14 II.4 Terminology and definitions .................................................................................................... 15 II.4.1 Smuggling of migrants ......................................................................................................... 15 II.4.2 Illegal entry .......................................................................................................................... 16 II.4.3 Financial or other material benefit ...................................................................................... 16 II.5 Offence of smuggling of migrants ............................................................................................ 17 II.5.1 Physical elements ................................................................................................................ 18 II.5.2 Mental elements .................................................................................................................. 18 II.5.3 Penalty ................................................................................................................................. 19 II.6 Offences involving fraudulent travel or identity documents ................................................... 20 II.6.1 Physical elements ................................................................................................................ 21 II.6.2 Mental elements .................................................................................................................. 22 II.6.3 Penalty ................................................................................................................................. 23 II.7 Offence of enabling illegal stay ................................................................................................ 24 II.7.1 Physical elements ................................................................................................................ 24 II.7.2 Mental elements .................................................................................................................. 25 II.7.3 Penalty ................................................................................................................................. 25 II.8 Aggravating circumstances ...................................................................................................... 26 II.8.1 Endangering the lives or safety of smuggled migrants ........................................................ 27 II.8.2 Inhuman or degrading treatment of smuggled migrants .................................................... 27 II.8.3 Other aggravations .............................................................................................................. 28 II.9 Extensions to criminal liability .................................................................................................. 29 II.9.1 Attempts .............................................................................................................................. 30 II.9.2 Participation as an accomplice, organising and directing others ........................................ 31 II.9.3 Participation in an organised criminal group ....................................................................... 32 II.10 Other criminal offences relating to irregular migration ........................................................... 33 II.10.1 Trafficking in persons ........................................................................................................... 33 II.10.2 Exploitation of non‐citizens ................................................................................................. 36 II.10.3 Illegal entry .......................................................................................................................... 37 II.11 Non‐criminalisation of smuggled migrants .............................................................................. 37 II.12 Jurisdiction ............................................................................................................................... 39 III Brunei Darussalam .................................................................................................................... 41 III.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................. 41 III.2 Ratification of and accession to international legal instruments ............................................. 41 III.3 Domestic laws and policies relating to smuggling of migrants ................................................ 41 III.3.1 Trafficking and Smuggling of Persons Order 2004 ............................................................... 41 III.3.2 General laws ........................................................................................................................ 42 III.4 Terminology and definitions .................................................................................................... 42 III.4.1 Smuggling of migrants ......................................................................................................... 42 III.4.2 Smuggled person ................................................................................................................. 43 III.4.3 Unlawful entry ..................................................................................................................... 43 III.4.4 Financial or other material benefit ...................................................................................... 43 III.5 Offence of smuggling of migrants ............................................................................................ 44 III.5.1 Physical elements ................................................................................................................ 44 III.5.2 Mental elements .................................................................................................................. 45 III.5.3 Penalty ................................................................................................................................. 45 III.5.4 Further offences .................................................................................................................. 45 III.6 Offences involving