Impact of Human Activity on Protected Areas: A case study of Nech Sar National Park in Ethiopia School of Engineering and Sustainable Development De Montfort University Leicester, United Kingdom Molla Mekonnen Alemu Thesis submitted to De Montfort University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy July 2020 Acknowledgments First and foremost, my deepest thanks go to the Almighty God, for He is the one who brought me to this level of life. The consistent commitment of my father, Mekonnen Alemu, in empowering and nurturing my life will remain with me forever. Thank you so much “Abiye” for being my hero and the best father! Had it not been your commitment, I would not reach this stage. Your commitment and unconditional love have been the foundation of my courage and determination in achieving the various goals in my life. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisors Professor Subhes Bhattacharyya and Dr. Andrew Reeves for their unlimited support from shaping the idea of the research up to the materialization of the study. I would like to thank them for their unfailing support and scientific guidance throughout the study. I have learned a lot from their rich academic knowledge and experiences. My sincere gratefulness also goes to Professor Mark Lemon for his continued, valuable insights and encouragement. The meticulous scientific advice I have received from him was very instrumental for the success of my study in the University. I am also indebted to thank my good friend Andrew Simmons and his wife Anoria for the encouragement, discussions and comments I have received at various stages of this work. I would also like to thank Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority for their help I got in conducting the research in Nech Sar National Park of Ethiopia. My sincere and heartfelt thanks go to the Nech Sar National Park staff in general for their help towards the success of this research. More specifically I would like to single out Abraham Marye (Park Warden), Bililign Zafu, Gemechu Leta, Shimelis Zenebe, Ato Admasu, Ato Asnake and Shaleqa for their technical support and help in understanding the status of the park. David, your encouragements are highly appreciated. The support of my sister Tena and Tewabu in facilitating my field work is also highly appreciated. Demeke’s, a GIS specialist at EIAR, help in the preparation of the different maps and interpretation of the satellite images is also greatly acknowledged. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................. iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xii List of Appendices ........................................................................................................... xiv Acronyms .......................................................................................................................... xv Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................... xvii Abstract ........................................................................................................................... xix Chapter 1 - General Background and Research Context .............................................. 1 1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Impact of Human Activities on Protected Areas .......................................................................... 3 1.3. Community Participation as an approach to Protected Areas Management .......................... 4 1.4. Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................. 5 1.5. Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................................... 7 1.6. Case of the Research ........................................................................................................................... 9 1.7. Objectives of the Study .................................................................................................................... 10 1.8. Research Questions .......................................................................................................................... 10 1.9. Original Contribution to Knowledge ............................................................................................ 11 1.10. Linkages between Specific Objectives and Research Questions .......................................... 11 1.11. Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter 2 - Setting the Scene ........................................................................................ 15 2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 15 2.2. Country Context ............................................................................................................................... 15 2.2.1. Geographical Perspectives of Ethiopia .................................................................................. 16 2.2.2. Biodiversity in Ethiopia ............................................................................................................. 17 2.3. Description of the Study Site .......................................................................................................... 18 2.3.1. Rainfall and Temperature ......................................................................................................... 19 2.4. Historical Background of Ethiopian Parks .................................................................................... 22 2.5. Historical Background of Nech Sar National Park..................................................................... 24 2.6. Local Communities and their Livelihood in and around Nech Sar National Park .............. 26 iii 2.7. Governance History of Nech Sar .................................................................................................. 31 2.8. Chapter Summary.............................................................................................................................. 33 Chapter 3 - Literature Review........................................................................................ 34 3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 34 3.2. Why Protected Areas? ..................................................................................................................... 34 3.2.1. Protected Areas: Definition, Relevance and Recognition ................................................. 36 3.2.2. Historical Overview of Protected Areas .............................................................................. 37 3.3. Benefits of Protected Areas ............................................................................................................ 40 3.4. Protected Areas and Sustainable Development ......................................................................... 41 3.5. Threats Impacting Protected Areas .............................................................................................. 43 3.5.1. Human Influence on Forest Species Diversity, Density and Natural Regeneration Potentials ................................................................................................................................................ 49 3.5.2. Invasive Alien Plants as a threat to Biodiversity and Protected Areas .......................... 51 3.6. Strategy Development for Addressing Human Induced Threats in Protected Areas ........ 52 3.6.1. Role of Partnership in Sustainable Protected Areas Management ................................. 56 3.6.2. Participation of Communities in the Management of Protected Areas ......................... 57 3.7. Governance of Protected Areas .................................................................................................... 59 3.7.1. Types of Governance Practices and their Relevance and Applications to Nech Sar National Park .................................................................................................................................. 62 3.7.2. Governance Approaches: Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches ............................... 63 3.8. Gaps in Literature on the Study ..................................................................................................... 66 3.9.1. Sustainable Livelihood Development Framework and Conservation of Protected Areas ....................................................................................................................................................... 77 3.9.2. Social Assessment for Protected Areas Analytical framework ....................................... 81 3.9.3. Conceptual Framework for Assessing