The regulation and use of armed guards for protection of merchant vessels transitioning high risk areas A comparative study of two Western European states’ approach to the employment of armed security Erik Alexander Bamford MASTER THESIS Department of Comparative Politics University of Bergen May 2020 Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................................4 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................................................5 Thesis .............................................................................................................................................6 Scope and disposition ......................................................................................................................7 Methodology and literature .............................................................................................................8 Definitions and codification efforts ............................................................................................... 11 Definition and codification efforts on piracy .............................................................................. 11 Definition and codification efforts on private armed security ..................................................... 12 Definition of military vessel protection detail ............................................................................ 15 2: State monopoly on legitimate use of force ..................................................................................... 16 Establishing a legitimate monopoly on the use of force.................................................................. 16 From a European order to a world order ........................................................................................ 18 Regulating the use of force – The norm ......................................................................................... 19 Regulating the use of force – Contemporary perspectives .............................................................. 21 Regulations in the maritime environment ...................................................................................... 24 High risk area ............................................................................................................................ 26 Contemporary best management practice ................................................................................... 26 Summary of the theory on state’s monopoly of legitimate use of force and regulations in the maritime environment ................................................................................................................... 26 3: Analysis of how two Western European states ended up with different solutions for protecting merchant vessels against Piracy ........................................................................................................ 27 History and historic experiences related to employment of armed private security ......................... 27 Compliance and implementation of the prevailing norm for state monopoly on legitimate use of force ............................................................................................................................................. 30 Exposure to modern piracy and governing mitigation measures ..................................................... 32 Regulations and framework ........................................................................................................... 36 Norwegian regulations and legal framework .............................................................................. 36 The Dutch regulations and legal framework ............................................................................... 39 Discourses on state monopoly on legitimate use of force ............................................................... 41 Norwegian discourses on legitimate use of force against acts of piracy ...................................... 41 Dutch discourses on legitimate use of force against acts of piracy .............................................. 44 Summary of the analysis on the differences in approach to state monopoly on legitimate use of force in countering contemporary acts of piracy ..................................................................................... 49 4: Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 51 2 References ........................................................................................................................................ 55 3 Foreword This thesis is part of the political science program on democratic development assistance, which teaches different forms of intervention and involvement with transitional democracies, failed states or territories temporarily placed under international supervision. The linkages to democratic development assistance are found in why the use of force is sanctioned, how it is managed, and by whom legitimate force may be employed when facing a non-state actor operating from the sanctuary of a failed state. As a serving Norwegian army officer I am schooled in the theories on military arts, including raison d’état and the inherent link between political objectives and military action as presented by Carl von Clausewitz in the work known as On War. Clausewitz himself was a product of the Westphalian concept of state legitimate monopoly on force, through his officer training and experience as a warfighter. The Military Academy (Krigsskolen) in Oslo, teaches the ideal of monopoly on use of force as a core function of and by the state, and that the use of military force should be limited to actions that supports a higher political goal. The authorization of, and legitimate use of force is also tied to our national values. When faced with the surge in piracy, Norway amended a national policy and legislation allowing for contracting of private armed security, and as such deviated from the until then prevailing norm and national policy for state monopoly on force. This change made me question the political leaderships’ perception of those ideals. The above observation of change in national legislation and practice is the motivation for the thesis at hand. Throughout my work with this thesis, I have been cognizant of any normative effect my officer training may have introduced to my understanding of the principle of the state monopoly on violence. I have therefore strived to minimize any potential bias that this background may have imposed upon my work with this thesis. 4 1: Introduction The state monopoly on legitimate use of force may be viewed as a benchmark for democracy. This especially points to transparency and accountability related to the use of force. Transparency and accountability is for a large part sought through political oversight and provision of guidance and objectives for use of armed force. It is also central to public understanding and acceptance of the necessity of society’s use of force. Political oversight of why and by whom force is used has been an important mechanism in reducing and controlling the level of state violence. Democratic rule is defined as good governance, and established democracies see democratic rule as the only game in town. This comprehension is why most established democracies are involved at some level in promoting democracy as the most suited form for governing a state. Democratic processes are based on checks and balances between the people and the political elite. Re-election and renewed trust is the only way to stay in government. An important sales strategy for promotion of democracy is its ability to create and maintain a safe and secure environment. Key to this sales strategy is the monopolization of legitimate use of force under the control of an elected leadership which seeks to reduce the level of violence within society. This is central to the social contract. When established democracies move away from the practice of direct (de facto) control on armed force to a legislative (de jur) control on use of force, authorizing commercial interests and private actors the right to bear arms and use armed force, a key element in the sales strategy for democracy may be seen as changing. The change from de facto control to de jur management and commercialization on use of force, allows for transition of economic power into military power. Approximately 80 percent of global trade is transported by sea. Sea transportation is channeled via some strategic chokepoints due to the placement of major ports and harbors, but also due to length of routes and economy of transport. A lot of trade goods have expiry date deadlines, so longer transit routes with lower risks is not always an option for ships transporting such goods. Modern day piracy or armed robbery at sea affects global economy, safety at sea and the security of seafarers. Contemporary piracy off the coast of Somalia expanded from petty theft and plundering of goods aboard transitioning ships, to major crime and hijacking ships with crew and goods for ransom. The change in piracy efficiency and the increased risk to merchant fleet operations, for both goods and personnel forced the shipping industry, flag states and the international community to develop policies and countermeasures. One of the countermeasures