EXPLORATION AND EMPIRE: ICONOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE OF IBERIAN SHIPS OF DISCOVERY A Dissertation by KATIE MICHELLE CUSTER BOJAKOWSKI Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2011 Major Subject: Anthropology EXPLORATION AND EMPIRE: ICONOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE OF IBERIAN SHIPS OF DISCOVERY A Dissertation by KATIE MICHELLE CUSTER BOJAKOWSKI Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Kevin Crisman Committee Members, Donny Hamilton Suzanne Eckert April Hatfield Head of Department, Donny Hamilton May 2011 Major Subject: Anthropology iii ABSTRACT Exploration and Empire: Iconographic Evidence of Iberian Ships of Discovery. (May 2011) Katie Michelle Custer Bojakowski, B.A., Eastern Washington University M.A., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Kevin Crisman This dissertation research project focuses on maritime exploration during the Age of Discovery and the vessels that were the technological impetus for this dynamic era that ultimately led Christopher Columbus to the New World and Vasco da Gama to India. Little is known about the caravel and the nau, two ships which defined this era of global expansion; archival documents provide scant information regarding these vessels and to date there are only a few known archaeological examples. The caravel and the nau became lasting symbols of the bourgeoning Portuguese and Spanish maritime empires and are featured prominently in contemporaneous iconography. This dissertation bridges the gap between the humanities and sciences through the statistical analysis of the caravel, galleon, and nau in the iconographic record. As one of the first intensive uses of iconography in nautical archaeology, the study analyzed over 500 images using descriptive statistics and representational trends analysis in order to explore the two research questions posed, Are the ships represented in the iconography iv accurate? and Can iconography provide information on constructional characteristics of these vessels that will determine typology, evolution, and design changes? Gauging the accuracy of the ship representations was fundamental to establishing this study’s validity. The artists creating these images were not shipwrights or mariners and thus this research was not limited to the technological and constructional aspects alone. The dissertation addressed technology as a cultural symbol in order to understand how and why cultures attach such powerful and important symbolism to technology and adopt it as an identifying feature. On a broader level, this dissertation proved that iconography is a viable data source within nautical archaeology. The representational trends and general construction proportions analyzed in the iconographic record did provide an ample amount of information about the different ship types to greatly assist in the reconstruction of a caravel, galleon, or nau. The vast quantities of new data generated using these methodologies have the potential to significantly advance the study of these three ship types when paired with current and future archaeological evidence. v DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Piotr, our daughter, Zofia, and our son that is on his way. I could not have completed this dissertation without the support of my husband and the motivation of my children. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Faculty, friends, and family members have helped me to complete this dissertation. I would like to express my gratitude to these individuals for their support and assistance. The members of my dissertation committee, Kevin Crisman, Donny Hamilton, Suzanne Eckert, and April Hatfield, have generously given their time and expertise to better my work. I thank them for their contribution and their good-natured support. I also want to thank my family for the endless support they provided me during the long process of writing. It would have been next to impossible to write this dissertation without the help and guidance of my husband, Piotr. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………. iii DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………. viv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………….vi TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………viivii LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………… xiiix LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………….. xl CHAPTER 1 I INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………. 1.1 Research Objectives and Parameters.…………………………. 1 II HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF IBERIAN CARTOGRAPHY AND SEAFARING IN THE AGE OF DISCOVERY………..…………………12 2.1 Iberian Seafaring in the Age of Discovery……………………….12 2.2 Early Modern Cartography and Portugal…………………………..25 III EARLY MODERN PORTUGUESE ART AND EUROPEAN MARINE PAINTING…..…………………………....…..……………..37 3.1 The Emergence of Portuguese Painting in the 15th Century………38 3.2 16th-Century Marine Art…………………………………………..49 IV THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SHIPS…………………………………………………………………...57 4.1 Defining Iconography………………………..………..……… 57 4.2 The Ship as a Symbol………………………..………..……… 59 viii CHAPTER Page 4.3 Inherent Problems in the Analysis of Iconography……..………64 4.4 Towards a Theoretical Standardization of Iconography..………72 4.5 Research Methodology…………………………...……………84 V REPRESENTATIONAL TRENDS ANALYSIS OF SHIP TYPOLOGIES, RIGGING CONFIGURATIONS, AND SAIL AND YARD SETTINGS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY.……………..…92 5.1 Representational Trends Analysis of Ship Typologies………..92 5.2 Representational Trends Analysis of Rigging Configurations and Sail and Yard Settings…………………..……………………..109 VI REPRESENTATIONAL TRENDS ANALYSIS OF RIGGING ELEMENTS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY…………………………….. 152 6.1 Representational Trends Analysis of Shrouds…..…………………152 6.2 Representational Trends Analysis of Ratlines…………………….. 188 6.3 Representational Trends Analysis of Fore and Back Stays………………………………………..………………………197 6.4 Representational Trends Analysis of Halyards and Braces………………………………………………………….….209 6.5 Comparative Analysis of the Standing and Running Rigging……..214 VII REPRESENTATIONAL TRENDS ANALYSIS OF HULL CONSTRUCTION AND DECORATIVE ELEMENTS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………….220 7.1 Representational Trends Analysis of the Sterncastle and Forecastle……..……………………………………………………220 7.2 Representational Trends Analysis of Decorative Elements……………………………………………………..……243 VIII DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF MAST RAKE AND PLACEMENT IN THE ICONOGRAPHY ……………………………….269 8.1 Mast Rake Analysis……………………...………………………269 8.2 Mast Placement Analysis………………………...………………313 IX DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF MAST AND YARD DIMENSIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY: BONAVENTURE AND MIZZEN MASTS…………………………………….…………341 ix CHAPTER Page 9.1 Bonaventure Mast and Yard Dimensions………………………343 9.2 Mizzen Mast and Yard Dimensions………………………..……377 X DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF MAST AND YARD DIMENSIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY: MAIN MAST...….....………436 10.1 Main Mast and Yard Dimensions…………………………………436 XI DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF MAST AND YARD DIMENSIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY: FORE MAST, BOWSPRIT AND BOOMKIN………………………………………….521 11.1 Fore Mast and Yard Dimensions…………………………………..521 11.2 Bowsprit and Boomkin Dimensions……………………………….596 XII DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF THE FORECASTLE, STERNCASTLE, AND WAIST IN THE ICONOGRAPHY………...627 12.1 Forecastle, Sterncastle, and Waist Dimensions………………..627 XIII CONCLUSION ………..…………………………………………………688 13.1 Review of Research Questions and Hypotheses…………………...688 13.2 Review of Theory for Nautical Archaeological Research……………………………………….……………….704 13.3 Review of Methodology for Nautical Archaeological Research……………………………………….……………….708 13.4 Broader Impact for Nautical Archaeological Research……………………………………….……………….728 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………...730 APPENDIX 1……………………………………………………………………………..747 APPENDIX 2…………………………………………………………………………….765 APPENDIX 3…………………………………………………………………………….772 APPENDIX 4…………………………………………………………………………….775 APPENDIX 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